Methods for use of sex sorted semen to improve genetic management in swine

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to methods of increasing genetic merit of swine by establishing a plurality of mating subtypes for a line of swine, and determining a percentage of progeny that are male for each of the mating subtypes, or a percentage of progeny that are female for each of the mating subtypes, that would result, relative to a control, in an increase in genetic merit in the line; the invention further relates to sorting a sperm cell sample from a male swine in one of the mating subtypes into one or more subpopulations of sperm cells, wherein a majority of sperm cells in a subpopulation of sperm cells bear X chromosomes or Y chromosomes, and inseminating one or more female swine in the one of the mating subtypes with the subpopulation of sperm cells to achieve the percentage of progeny that are male, or the percentage of progeny that are female, determined to increase genetic merit relative to the control.

This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. applicationSer. No. 13/840,598, filed Mar. 15, 2013, which claims priority to U.S.Application No. 61/656,446, filed on Jun. 6, 2012.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods of using sex sorted semen from pureline boars of a swine line in matings to increase the genetic merit ofswine at the level of commercial pig production. The improvement ofgenetic management of the line is the result of 1) increase of thegenetic progress in the line and/or 2) improvement of the geneticdissemination (i.e., genetic merit of commercial product is closer togenetic merit at the genetic nucleus).

BACKGROUND

Swine production today can be represented by a multilevel pyramid, withcertain offspring at each level used in the next lower level forbreeding. The top level of the pyramid is the genetic nucleus (GN). Thenext levels from top to bottom are generally the daughter nucleus (DN),the multiplier, or multiplication unit, and finally the commerciallevel, generally comprising commercial farms where slaughter pigs arebeing produced, respectively.

Typically, genetic progress of a line takes place in the pure linepopulation at the genetic nucleus. The GN animals will have relatives atlower levels of the pyramid, pure bred as well as crossbred. Trait datacollected from these relatives contribute to the estimation of thegenetic merit of GN animals. Within a line at the GN, once selected,parents that produce the next generation are in general randomly matedwith one another, while avoiding matings between closely relatedindividuals, with the goal of increasing the genetic merit of the nextgeneration. An increase in the genetic merit of the next generationconstitutes genetic progress. An increase in genetic merit, in thiscontext, means that for a given trait or set of traits, the individualsin the successive generation will express the desired trait or set oftraits more strongly than their parents. With respect to undesirabletraits, an increase in genetic merit means the individuals in thesuccessive generation will express the trait or set of traits lessstrongly than their parents.

Genetic change, including desirable genetic change (i.e., geneticprogress per year), (“dG”) can be measured as the difference between theaverage genetic level of all progeny born in one year and all progenyborn the following year. The difference is the result of selectedparents having higher genetic merit than the average genetic merit ofall the selection candidates (the animals available for selection). Inideal conditions, this depends upon the heritability (h²) of the traitand the difference between the average performance of selected parentsand that of selection candidates. The heritability of a trait (h²) isthe proportion of observable differences (phenotypic variance, σ² _(P))in a trait between individuals within a population that is due toadditive genetic (A), as opposed to environmental (E), differences(h²=σ² _(A)/σ² _(P)=σ² _(A)/(σ² _(A)+σ² _(E))). The difference betweenthe average performance of selected parents and that of all selectioncandidates (of which the selected parents are a subset) is also known asthe selection differential.

The genetic progress per year is the result of genetic superiority ofselected males and of selected females. This is expressed in thefollowing equation:dG={(R _(IH) *i)_(males)+(R _(IH) *i)_(females)}*σ_(H)/(L _(males) +L_(females)),Where, R=the accuracy of selection, i=the selection intensity,σ_(H)=genetic variation and L=generation interval, for male or femaleparents.H=breeding goal that combines genetic merit (g) of the traits (1 to m)that need to be produced weighted by the economic values (v) of thetraits (H=v₁g₁+v₂g₂+ . . . +v_(m)g_(m)). The economic value is positiveif selection is for larger phenotypic values and negative if selectionis for smaller phenotypic values.I=an index that combines all the trait information on the individual andits relatives and is the best estimate of the value of H for theindividual.

Selection is more effective when non-genetic effects are removed (e.g.by comparing each performance record to the average of the contemporarygroup) and when information from relatives is used in addition to thatof the animal itself. This is achieved through the computation ofestimated breeding values (EBVs) using for instance multiple trait BLUPmethods. Environmental factors such as HYS (herd-year-season) are in themodel to correct for environmental effects and simultaneouslyinformation from relatives is included through the use of therelationship matrix. More trait information from more relatives resultsin a higher accuracy (R_(IH)) of the EBV.

In a large population, the selection intensity depends upon how manyanimals are tested and how many are selected—the lower the proportionselected the higher the selection intensity and the larger the geneticprogress, all else being equal. Thus, in order to maximize geneticprogress, one should rank all tested animals based on the EBV and thenselect the minimum number of top boars and sows required to maintain theline, breed and/or herd size and to avoid inbreeding problems. Thisensures that the average EBV of selected animals is substantially higherthan the average EBV of all animals tested. In particular through theuse of artificial insemination (AI), one needs to select fewer boarsthan gilts and the selection intensity for males is higher than forfemales.

The generation interval for males (or females) is the average age ofmale parents (or female parents) when progeny are born. In general sowsproduce more than one litter at the GN and the L for females tends to belarger than the L for males.

The annual rate of genetic progress depends on the generation intervaland on the superiority of the parent's EBVs compared to that of theselection candidates. In general, males contribute more to the geneticprogress per year than the females.

Examples of important traits in the swine industry are feed efficiency,i.e., a measure of an animal's efficiency in converting feed mass intoincreased body mass (also known as feed conversion or feed to gainratio), and average daily gain, i.e., the average daily weight gain foran animal. Traits are measured in different units (e.g., number of pigs,pounds per day, inches, etc.), are not of equal economic importance inall global markets, and are not genetically influenced to the samedegree (i.e., different heritability coefficients). Generally speaking,production traits such as feed efficiency and average daily gain havehigh heritability. In contrast, reproductive traits such as fertilityand litter size generally have low heritability.

There is a need in the swine industry to increase the rate of geneticprogress in lines as well as to lower operational costs on breeding andcommercial swine farms.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Certain embodiments of the invention comprise a method of increasinggenetic merit of swine comprising the steps of establishing a pluralityof mating subtypes for a line; determining a percentage of progeny thatare male for each of the mating subtypes, or a percentage of progenythat are female for each of the mating subtypes, that would result,relative to a control, in an increase in genetic merit; sorting a spermcell sample from a male swine in one of the mating subtypes into one ormore subpopulations of sperm cells, wherein a majority of sperm cells ina subpopulation of sperm cells bear X chromosomes or Y chromosomes;inseminating one or more female swine in the one of the mating subtypeswith the subpopulation of sperm cells to achieve the percentage ofprogeny that are male or the percentage of progeny that are femaledetermined to increase genetic merit relative to a control; andproducing progeny from the one or more female swine. In a furtherembodiment, the percentage of progeny that are male for each of themating subtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for eachof the mating subtypes, results in an increase in genetic merit and noincrease in inbreeding in the line relative to a control. In a furtherembodiment, the step of inseminating may be replaced by a step offertilizing, either in vivo or in vitro, one or more eggs from one ormore female swine in the one of the mating subtypes with thesubpopulation of sperm cells to achieve the percentage of progeny thatare male, or the percentage of progeny that are female, determined toincrease genetic merit relative to the control. In certain embodimentsof the invention, the line, the male, the one or more female, and/or theprogeny, may belong to or be members of a genetic nucleus, a daughternucleus or a multiplier. In other embodiments of the invention, any orall of the aforementioned steps may be performed as part of a breedingprogram. It should be understood that certain embodiments of theinvention comprise one or more of the aforementioned steps.

It should be understood that in certain embodiments of the invention, atleast approximately 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%,98%, 99% or 100% of sperm cells in the subpopulation of sperm cells bearX chromosomes or Y chromosomes.

In certain embodiments of the invention, genetic merit of a swine or aline may be a function of, based on, or determined by, quantitative orgenomic EBV. In other embodiments of the invention, genetic merit may bea function of, based on, or determined by, one or more traits, includingbut not limited to fertility, litter size, milk production, feedefficiency, average daily gain and carcass lean, as well as geneticmarkers for such traits. In a further embodiment, genetic merit may be afunction of, based on, or determined by, the ability of sperm cells tobe sex sorted and/or frozen based on the sperm cells viability,fertility, and/or motility after sorting and/or freezing, as well as agenetic marker for such a trait.

In certain embodiments of the invention, a line may comprise a sire lineor a dam line In certain aspects of the invention, a line may comprise asire line and the percentage of progeny that are male for each of themating subtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for eachof the mating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 10 to 35% or 15 to 30%. Inother aspects, a line may comprise a dam line and the percentage ofprogeny that are male for each of the mating subtypes, or the percentageof progeny that are female for each of the mating subtypes, determinedto increase genetic merit of the line relative to a control, results ina percentage of progeny that are male for the line that is betweenapproximately 5 to 30% or 10 to 25%. In yet further aspects, thepercentage of progeny that are male for each of the mating subtypes, orthe percentage of progeny that are female for each of the matingsubtypes may be between approximately 0 to 10% or between approximately90 to 100% and the produced progeny may be members of a daughter nucleusor a multiplier.

In certain embodiments of the invention, approximately 50% of progenyare male in the control. In other embodiments, all female swine to bemated are inseminated with unsorted semen samples in the control.

In some aspects of the inventions, a category or class of male swine inone or more of the mating subtypes may be defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or age. In other aspects, acategory or class of female swine in one or more of the mating subtypesmay be defined by one or more characteristics, including genetic meritor parity. In some embodiments, each of the mating subtypes in theplurality of mating subtypes may comprise only one male swine and/oronly one female swine from the line. In some embodiments of theinvention, a mating subtype may be comprised of one or more subgroupsand/or one or more female subgroups, wherein a subgroup is defined orbased on one or more criteria, including but not limited to, function inthe production pyramid, age, parity, genetic merit (e.g., EBV) andgenetic markers or mutations. Some embodiments of the invention comprisethe step of classifying or splitting males and/or females available formating into a plurality of subgroups, wherein the subgroups are definedby, or based on, one or more criteria including but not limited to,function in the production pyramid, age, parity, genetic merit (e.g.,EBV) and genetic markers or mutations. In a further embodiment, theaforementioned step of classifying or splitting is performed in a lineor as part of a breeding program or as a step in creating a mating planfor a line. In certain embodiments, a male subgroup is defined by, orbased on, one or more criteria including but not limited to, function inthe production pyramid, age, genetic merit (e.g., EBV) and geneticmarkers or mutations. In certain embodiments, a female subgroup isdefined by, or based on, one or more criteria including but not limitedto, function in the production pyramid, parity, age, genetic merit(e.g., EBV) and genetic markers or mutations. In some embodiments of theinvention, one or more male subgroups can cover one or more males. Inother embodiments of the invention, one or more female subgroups cancover one or more females.

It should be understood that in certain embodiments of the invention,the percentages of male and/or female progeny that increase geneticmerit may be determined using a stochastic or a deterministic method, ora combination thereof.

In certain embodiments of the invention, genetic merit of a swine or aline may be a function of, based on, or determined by, EBV. In otherembodiments of the invention, genetic merit may be a function of, basedon, or determined by, one or more traits, including but not limited tofertility, litter size, milk production, feed efficiency, average dailygain and carcass lean, as well as genetic markers for such traits. In afurther embodiment, genetic merit may be a function of, based on, ordetermined by, the ability of sperm cells to be sex sorted and/or frozenbased on the sperm cells viability, fertility, and/or motility aftersorting and/or freezing, as well as a genetic marker for such a trait.In certain embodiments of the invention, genetic merit of a swine or aline may be assessed by genotyping a swine or an embryo.

In certain embodiments of the invention, sex sorted semen may comprisesex sorted sperm cells, or sex sorted sperm cells and one or more othercomponents of an ejaculate. In other embodiments, a sex sorted spermcell sample may comprise a sperm cell sample in which either X- orY-bearing sperm cells in the sample have been rendered incapable offertilization by, for example, killing. In other embodiments, theprocess of sex sorting a sperm cell sample or a semen sample includesany process in which either X- or Y-bearing sperm cells in the sampleare identified and rendered incapable of fertilization.

Other aspects of the invention encompass inseminating a female swinefrom said line or breed with sex sorted sperm cells using a deepintrauterine catheter or a needle inserted through a membrane of saidfemale swine. Some of these embodiments encompass known surgical andnon-surgical techniques that can be used to place sperm cells into afemale swine's reproductive tract, including laparotomy (surgicalprocedure involving a large incision through the abdominal wall to gainaccess into the abdominal cavity). This embodiment contemplatesinseminating female swine using 1×10⁹ or less total sperm cells.

In other embodiments, a deep intrauterine catheter can be employed toadminister a sperm cell sample into distal portions of a female swine'sreproductive tract such as one or more uterine horns or one or moreutero-tubal junctions. In another aspect of the invention, the deepintrauterine catheter is comprised of an outer tube or sheath and aninner flexible probe. In a further aspect of the invention, the flexibleinner probe comprises a flexible inner duct through which fluids orcells can pass. In certain embodiments of the invention, the outer tubeand inner flexible probe can be made of a plastic, and in otherembodiments, they may be made of metal configured to be flexible such asin a coil or spring configuration. In a further embodiment, the deepintrauterine catheter comprises a video camera or scope for visualizingthe location of the distal portion of the deep intrauterine catheterwithin a female swine's reproductive tract. In an alternativeembodiment, the deep intrauterine catheter can be visualized within thefemale swine's reproductive tract using radiography or fluoroscopy. Inanother embodiment of the invention, a deep intrauterine catheter can beused to insert or withdraw embryos or zygotes from the distal portionsof a female swine's reproductive tract such as from one or more uterinehorns or from one or more utero-tubal junction.

With respect to insemination with a deep intrauterine catheter, it iscontemplated that a dose of 1×10⁹ sperm cells or less is administered toa female swine. Such sperm cells may be sex sorted sperm cells. In oneembodiment of the invention a dose of sex sorted sperm cells (forinstance 600×10⁶, but may be more, or as little as 10×10⁶ if placed inthe optimal location at the optimal time of estrus) is administered intoone or both uterine horns (e.g., 300×10⁶ sperm cells into each horn) ofa female swine by deep intrauterine catheter. In other embodiments,doses can vary in the range of or anywhere in between about 300×10⁶,about 150×10⁶, about 140×10⁶, about 100×10⁶, about 70×10⁶, about 50×10⁶,or about 5×10⁶ sex sorted sperm cells or less and can be administeredinto one or both uterine horns of a female swine.

The aforementioned doses can be administered in various volumes,including but not limited to 5 ml for every 150×10⁶ sperm cells, or thesame number of cells in a volume in the range of 5 ml, 10 ml, 15 ml, 20ml, 25 ml, 30 ml or 100 ml, or somewhere between 5-10 ml, 10-20 ml,20-30 ml, 30-40 ml, 40-50 ml, 50-60 ml, 60-70 ml, 70-80 ml, 80-90 ml or90-100 ml.

The sex sorted sperm cells for use in any embodiment of the inventioncan be cryopreserved and then thawed, or alternatively fresh (i.e.,never frozen) sex sorted sperm cells can be utilized. The aforementioneddoses may also be administered into one or more utero-tubal junctions ofa female swine.

This embodiment of the invention also encompasses the use of alaparoscope to visualize insertion of a needle through a membrane of afemale swine for administering a sex sorted sperm cell sample. Both theneedle used for injecting the sperm cell sample and the laparoscope, aswell as manipulating instruments such as forceps, can be inserted intothe abdomen of a female swine through small incisions typical oflaparoscopic procedures. The invention also encompasses the injection ofa sperm cell sample in one or more locations within the femalereproductive tract. By way of example only, the sperm cell sample can beinjected in one or more locations within the uterus of a female swine,including one or more uterine horns, oviducts, ampulla, isthmus orutero-tubal junction. In another embodiment of the invention, embryos orzygotes can be inserted or withdrawn from a female swine's reproductivetract via laparoscopy.

With respect to insemination via laparoscopy, it is contemplated that adose of 1×10⁹ sperm cells or less is administered to a female swine.Such sperm cells may be sex sorted sperm cells. In one embodiment of theinvention a dose of about 500×10⁶ sex sorted sperm cells or less can beinjected into one or both oviducts (e.g., 250×10⁶ sperm cells in eachoviduct) of a female swine by laparoscopy; in other embodiments, dosesin the range of or anywhere in between about 10×10⁶, about 5×10⁶, about3×10⁶, about 2.0×10⁶, about 1.2×10⁶, about 1×10⁶, or 0.6×10⁶ sex sortedsperm cells or less can be injected into one or both oviducts of afemale swine.

In a further embodiment, sex sorted sperm cells can be injected intospecific regions of the oviduct, including but not limited to theisthmus, the ampulla and/or the utero-tubal junction. In certainembodiments, a dose in the range of or anywhere in between about 5×10⁶,about 2×10⁶, about 1×10⁶, about 600×10³, about 500×10³, about 300×10³,or about 150×10³ sex sorted sperm cells or less, can be injected intoone or more regions of the oviduct, either unilaterally or bilaterally.

In a further embodiment with respect to insemination via laparoscopy,sex sorted sperm cells can be injected at various sites in the oviductusing doses in the range of or anywhere in between the about 500×10³ sexsorted sperm cells injected into each ampulla with about 1×10⁶ sexsorted sperm cells injected into each utero-tubal junction; or a dose ofabout 1×10⁶ sex sorted sperm cells injected into each ampulla with about2×10⁶ sex sorted sperm cells injected into each utero-tubal junction; ora dose of about 5×10⁵ sex sorted sperm cells injected into each ampullawith about 2×10⁶ sex sorted sperm cells injected into each utero-tubaljunction; or a dose of about 5×10⁵ sex sorted sperm cells injected intoeach ampulla with about 1×10⁶ sex sorted sperm cells injected into eachutero-tubal junction. The aforementioned doses can be contained invarious volumes, by way of example, 100 μl for every 1×10⁶ million spermcells, or the same number of sperm in one of the following or in anyvolume between: 50 μl, 100 μl, 200 μl, 300 μl, 400 μl or 500 μl.

Another aspect of the invention comprises synchronizing estrus and/orinducing timed ovulation in a female swine that is to be inseminatedusing the embodiments disclosed herein by administering one or morehormone or hormone analogs to the female swine. In one embodiment, theone or more hormone or hormone analogs comprises PG600 (comprisingpregnant mare's serum gonadotropin [“PMSG”] and human chorionicgonadotropin [“hCG”]; Intervet), OvuGel (triptorelin acetate in a slowrelease formula via an intravaginal delivery system; Gel Med Sciences,Inc.), equine chorionic gonadotropin (“eCG”), hCG, progestin,altrenogest or regumate.

In a further embodiment of the invention, said one or more hormone orhormone analogs is administered by a programmable device placed in thereproductive tract of said female swine. The programmable devicecontemplated herein is able to release said one or more hormone orhormone analogs in a time released fashion without the breeder having tomonitor the device or provide any input other than programming theinitial parameters for release of said one or more hormone or hormoneanalog. In another embodiment of the invention, estrussynchronization/timed ovulation can be induced in a female swine byadministering 1250 to 1500 IU of eCG and then 750 IU of hCG 72 to 80hours later. In another embodiment, estrus can be induced in a femaleswine by administering 400 to 2000 IU of PMSG and then 500 to 1000 IU ofhCG is administered 72 to 83 hours later.

Other embodiments further contemplate detecting ovulation in a femaleswine by examining said female swine's follicles. In a particularembodiment of the invention, said female swine's follicles are examinedusing ultrasound. In a further embodiment, said female swine's ovariesare examined by transrectal ultrasound every 3-5 hours beginning 25-35hours after hCG injection for the presence of pre-ovulatory follicles.In a further embodiment of the invention, female swine showing multiplepre-ovulatory follicles are selected for insemination 2-3 hours afterultrasound.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows an example of a production pyramid for the production ofcrossbred parent boars and parent gilts.

FIG. 2 shows the increase in dG and reduction in overall percentage ofmale progeny that results when Precision Breeding is applied withincreased levels of sophistication in both sire and dam lines.

FIG. 3 illustrates schematically a flow cytometer that can be used tosort sperm cell samples into one or more subpopulations bearing X- orY-chromosomes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The methods disclosed herein increase the genetic merit of swine at thecommercial level by increasing the rate of genetic progress of a lineand/or reducing the genetic lag between the GN and commercial productionwhile making multiplication more cost effective and/or profitable.

“Line” as used herein refers to swine having a common origin and similaridentifying characteristics. “Pure line” as used herein is equivalent to“line,” and may be used below in order to distinguish a pure bredindividual or mating from a crossbred individual or mating.

“Breeding program” as used herein comprises one or more line developmentprograms.

“Commercial swine” refers to swine slaughtered for their meat forcommercial sale or sows producing swine for their meat for commercialsale.

“Commercial farm” as used herein refers to a facility for housingcommercial swine.

“Multiplier,” or “multiplication unit,” as used herein refers to one ormore populations of male and female swine, comprising one or more linesthat are part of a multiplication program for increasing the number ofindividuals with increasing genetic merit, with individuals being pureline or crossbred products used as parents, grandparents or greatgrandparents of commercial swine.

“Daughter nucleus” as used herein refers to one or more populations ofmale and female swine used for pure line multiplication.

“Genetic nucleus” as used herein refers to one or more populations ofmale and female swine, comprising one or more lines that are part of abreeding program for increasing the genetic merit of the one or morelines, and may include, or comprise the functions of, a daughternucleus.

“Mating subtype” as used herein refers to a defined class of potentialmating between: 1) a defined category, class or type of male andavailable females; 2) available males and a defined category, class ortype of female; or 3) a defined category, class or type of male and adefined category, class or type of female.

“Sire line” as used herein refers to a line that contributes to theproduction of parent boars used on commercial farms.

“Dam line” as used herein refers to a line that contributes to theproduction of parent gilts/sows used on commercial farms.

At every level in the swine production pyramid, for each mating type,from genetic nucleus (“GN”) to commercial production, one has males(boars and/or their semen) and females (gilts/sows and/or their eggs) tochoose from for the production of progeny.

At the GN, pure line matings take place, males and females are beingproduced, and the best tested males and females are used to produce thenext generation. In general (but not always), only GN males (or theirsemen) are used for genetic dissemination to lower levels of the pyramid(daughter nucleus [“DN”] or multiplier [“M”]).

Generally, the grandparents of slaughter pigs are produced at the DN andparents of the slaughter pigs are produced at the M level. In theexample given in FIG. 1, only one of the two sexes needs to be producedat the DN or M level for one mating type. At the commercial level parentboars and parent gilts/sows produce the slaughter pigs. The splitbetween levels of the production pyramid depends on specific features ofa production system. In a closed herd commercial structure, severallevels can be found within one farm (structure). But in terms ofmatings, one still generally deals with the mating types as described inFIG. 1.

Referring to FIG. 1, each letter—“A,” “B,” “C,” “D” and “E”—represents apure line where A and B are sire lines and C, D and E are dam lines. Ineach square block of FIG. 1, a mating type or types (for instance,“A*A,” “D*E,” “C*DE,” etc.) and the desired sex of the piglets (“♂”and/or “♀”) are shown. The details of a multiplication structure (DN andM, wherein M generally comprises a parent boar M and a parent gilt M)depend on the breeding company (large or small), its customers (large orsmall) and the final product (3, 4 or 5-way cross). FIG. 1 gives oneexample of a production pyramid. One sees sire lines (e.g., B) producinggilts and dam lines (e.g., C) producing boars. For each of the lines,the most superior tested boars are moved to an AI station and theirsemen used: 1) for pure line matings at the GN, producing male ANDfemale desired progeny and 2) for pure line matings or crossbred matingsat DN/M producing male OR female desired progeny.

An increase of genetic progress in the GN generally involves theproduction, testing and selection of boars and gilts. In the traditionalsituation (i.e., use of unsorted semen), there are effectively twoselection pathways: sires to produce sires and dams and dams to producesires and dams. The use of sex sorted semen creates an opportunity touse four selection pathways (i.e., sires to produce sires [“SS”], siresto produce dams [“SD”], dams to produce sires [“DS”], and dams toproduce dams [“DD”]) and to increase the genetic merit and rate ofgenetic progress at the commercial level. The rate of genetic progressper year in a line at the GN is a function of accuracy of selection,selection intensity, genetic variation and generation interval:dG={(R*i)_(SS)+(R*i)_(SD)+(R*i)_(DS)+(R*i)_(DD)}*σ_(H)/(L _(SS) +L _(SD)+L _(DS) +L _(DD)),where,R is the accuracy of selection with in generalR_(SS)=R_(SD)≧R_(DS)=R_(DD)L is the generation interval with L_(SS) the average of boars when maleprogeny are born, L_(SD) the average age of boars when female progenyare born, L_(DS) the average age of sows when male progeny are born andL_(DD) the average age of sows when female progeny are born.‘i’ is the selection intensity for each of the four pathways.

With four selection pathways available, one has the choice to selectwhich particular male parent or which particular female parent within apopulation produces male offspring, and which particular male parent orwhich particular female parent within a population produces femaleoffspring. The concept of “Precision Breeding,” as disclosed herein,allows one to pinpoint the best male, and female parents for theproduction of a particular gender in order to increase the genetic meritand rate of genetic progress at the commercial level through a mating,testing and selection plan using sex sorted semen. The use of this newbreeding approach is termed “Precision Breeding.”

A core principle underlying Precision Breeding is that for each matingtype, as illustrated in FIG. 1, one has males (boars and/or their semen)and females (gilts/sows and/or their eggs) at the GN and the DN/Mavailable for the production of male and/or female progeny. In order togenerate a mating plan for a mating type using Precision Breeding, themales and/or females available for mating are first classified or“split” into subgroups based on certain criteria including, but notlimited to, function in the production pyramid, age, parity, geneticmerit (e.g., EBV) and/or genetic markers or mutations.

TABLE 1 % of male Male subgroups^(b)) progeny^(a)) 1 2 3 4 5 Female 1P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 sub 2 P21 P22 P23 P24 P25 groups^(c)) 3 P31 P32 P33P34 P35 4 P41 P42 P43 P44 P45 ^(a))The percentage of male progeny inlitters (Pij) produced by a subgroup of male and a subgroup of femaleparents. ^(b))The males available for mating are split into 5 subgroupsbased on age and/or merit. ^(c))The females available for mating aresplit into 4 subgroups based on age and/or merit.

In the example in Table 1, we have defined five subgroups for the malesand four subgroups for the females. For each i^(th) male and j^(th)female subgroup combination (each subgroup combination represents amating subtype) one can determine the percentage of male progeny(P_(ij)) and female progeny (Q_(ij)) that results in the largestincrease in genetic merit. P_(ij)+Q_(ij)=100. P_(ij) can range from 0 to100.

The males might be split into ‘a’ age subgroups and within each agesubgroup, split into ‘b’ additional subgroups based on their EBV. Forexample, the sows might be split into ‘p’ parity subgroups at the GN and‘q’ parity subgroups at DN/M. Furthermore, within each parity subgroup,sows might be split into ‘n’ additional subgroups based on, for example,their EBV. This will result in ‘ab’ subgroups for males and ‘(p+q)n’subgroups for females giving a total of ‘ab(p+q)n’ mating subtypes for aspecific mating type illustrated in FIG. 1.

In one embodiment of Precision Breeding, each male and each female istreated as a mating subgroup and the percentage of male progeny thatyields the largest increase in genetic merit is determined for eachpotential mating.

This general principle can be applied in different situations and withdifferent objectives. Generally, in order to implement PrecisionBreeding technology in a genetic improvement program, there are a numberof steps that may be performed:

One step is to determine the resources available for development oflines and multiplication. Relevant resources include, but are notlimited to, the number of sow places at the GN and DN/M, the performancetest capacity at the GN and DN, the number of crossbred progeny to testat commercial farms per GN boar (pure line boars used for breeding atthe GN), and the budget.

Another step is to define a genetic improvement program that does notuse Precision Breeding technology. In certain embodiments of theinvention, a genetic improvement program may be designed to yieldmaximum genetic progress for a given level of inbreeding and/or as afunction of available resources. Major elements include, but are notlimited to, the maximum parity, the number of GN boars selected forbreeding per year, the period (number of days) during which a selectedGN boar is used for breeding, the breeding goal and phenotype datacollection.

A further step is to estimate the genetic improvement per year with aline development program using deterministic and/or stochastic methods.

An additional step is to define a line development program that usesPrecision Breeding and sex sorted semen technology. In certainembodiments of the invention, in addition to defining the linedevelopment program along conventional parameters, this will comprisesplitting the males and females available for mating into subgroups. Forexample, females can be split into ‘n’ parity subgroups and into ‘p’ EBVsubgroups within each parity subgroup. This results in ‘n*p’ femalesubgroups. Males can be split into ‘a’ age subgroups and into ‘b’ EBVsubgroups within each age subgroup. This results in ‘a*b’ malesubgroups. A mating plan can then be developed using a matrix of the‘np’*‘ab’ mating subtypes.

Another step is to develop a mating plan for a line development programthat uses Precision Breeding technology. Generally, the goal of such amating plan will be to increase genetic progress without increasinginbreeding in the line, relative to a mating plan for a line developmentprogram in which Precision Breeding technology is not used (i.e., acontrol). With respect to a mating plan for a line development programthat uses Precision Breeding technology, a percentage, or a range ofpercentages, of progeny that are male or female for each mating subtypethat results in an increase in genetic progress, and no increase ininbreeding, relative to a control can be determined using stochasticand/or deterministic methods. In certain embodiments of the invention,the percentage of progeny that are male or female for each matingsubtype that results in the maximum increase in genetic progress, and noincrease in inbreeding, relative to a control can be determined usingstochastic and/or deterministic methods.

An additional step that may be performed in a line development programthat uses Precision Breeding technology is to inseminate one or morefemales in a mating subtype with sex sorted semen to achieve apercentage of progeny that are male or female as determined in a matingplan. For this purpose, the sex sorted semen may be obtained from one ormore males in the same mating subtype as the females.

In certain embodiments of the invention, a control may comprise the sameindividuals as those used in a mating plan for a line developmentprogram that uses Precision Breeding technology and may be simulatedusing any method known in the art. Additionally, a line developmentprogram that uses Precision Breeding technology and a line developmentprogram for a control may be defined identically except for thosefeatures found only in a line development program that uses PrecisionBreeding technology.

A condition that may be assumed for both the mating plan for a linedevelopment program that uses Precision Breeding technology and thecontrol is that each female at any point in time can only be used incombination with one male, unless mixed semen is being used. Withrespect to the control, it may further be assumed that females selectedas parents are randomly mated with available males except that matingsbetween closely related individuals such as full-siblings andhalf-siblings are avoided, and that each litter has on average a 50/50split between male and female progeny. Alternatively, with respect tothe mating plan for a line development program that uses PrecisionBreeding technology, it may be assumed that each mating subtype willhave a target for production of a certain average percentage of males orfemales, ranging from 0 to 100% and for each litter in general a targetof 0, 50 or 100%.

In certain embodiments of the invention, a mating plan for a linedevelopment program that uses Precision Breeding technology may simplycomprise a framework or general guidelines that are derived from thespecific target percentages determined for each mating subtype. Forexample, a general guideline may be that each generation comprise acertain percentage of males overall or that young, high EBV parentsshould preferentially produce males. A framework or general guidelineswill generally be implemented to increase genetic progress, without anincrease in inbreeding, relative to a control.

Another step is to include matings at the DN/M level in a mating planwith optimal percentages of male or female pigs in order to make optimaluse of the semen production capacity per boar and to use the mostsuperior boars to contribute to genetic improvement and control ofinbreeding as well as genetic dissemination to ultimately the commerciallevel.

As an alternative, or in addition, to testing or assessing progenyphenotypically, in certain embodiments of the invention, genomicselection or mutation assisted selection may be implemented. Withrespect to mutation assisted selection, GN breeding animals will carry aknown number of favourable mutations and certain individuals may becomevery important for a genetic improvement program. For example, if thereare three mutations of interest and the frequency of the favourableallele is 0.5, only 1.56% of the animals will be found to be homozygousfor all three favourable alleles. If the number of identified favourablemutations increases and/or the frequencies of favourable allelesdecreases, the percentage of individuals with the ideal genotype willdrop.

Application of Optimum Genetic Contribution Theory in Precision Breeding

Intensive selection in species such as swine increases the risk of lossof genetic diversity through an increase of inbreeding and relationshipsbetween animals in a population, resulting in a higher percentage ofdetrimental recessive genes in the homozygous state and in inbreedingdepression. Inbreeding is generally not problematic for existingbreeding programs since they take inbreeding into consideration. Amongstthese existing breeding programs, inbreeding is generally restricted toa less than 1% increase per generation.

Initially inbreeding was controlled by restricting the number of full-and half-siblings produced and/or selected for and by avoiding matingsbetween full- and half-siblings. Currently, most breeding programs limitinbreeding by implementing rules based on optimum genetic contributiontheory (“OGC”). OGC maximizes genetic progress while constraining therate of inbreeding or the relationships among selected candidates (seeWoolliams, J. and Meuwissen, T., 1993, Decision rules and variance ofresponse in breeding schemes, Anim. Prod. 56:179-186; and Meuwissen, T.,1997, Maximizing the response of selection with a predefined rate ofinbreeding. J. Anim. Sci. 75:934-940).

Application of OGC in breeding programs generally comprises two steps:

-   -   1. Choose the selected parents from the selection candidates and        assign genetic contributions to the next generation for each        selected candidate.    -   2. Develop a mating plan involving the selected candidates that        minimizes average inbreeding in the next generation.

In swine it works as follows:

-   -   A certain number of male and female progeny are produced per        generation or per period (for instance per week).    -   After the performance test selection decisions need to be made.        Use of the OGC theory results in the calculation of the optimum        genetic contribution for each of the performance tested        individuals. Individuals with a calculated contribution below a        certain threshold (different threshold for males and females)        are culled and the selected individuals are then available for        breeding.    -   In each period a number of males and females are available for        breeding and algorithms can be used to develop the mating plan        resulting in minimal average inbreeding.

There are several commercial software packages available to implementthe above concepts. For use of OGC, packages such as GENCONT, EVA(Nordgen) and TGRM™ (X'Prime) are available, and for mating design, useof a simulated annealing algorithm (Sonesson, A. and Meuwissen, T.,2000, Mating schemes for optimum contribution selection with constrainedrates of inbreeding, Genet. Sel. Evol. 32:231-248) or X'Mate™ (X'Prime)can be used if in-house software development is not feasible.

In certain embodiments of the invention, OGC can be implemented to limitor control inbreeding in a line development program utilizing PrecisionBreeding technology.

OGC software generally requires pedigree information and a descriptionof the structure of a breeding program, including but not limited to,population size, test capacity and maximum parity of sows. With the useof Precision Breeding technology, one needs to also include thedefinition of age and genetic merit subclasses.

Instead of calculating the optimum genetic contribution for each of theperformance tested individuals, when using Precision Breedingtechnology, one now calculates the optimum genetic contribution for eachof the performance tested individuals for the production of male progenyand the optimum genetic contribution for each of the performance testedindividuals for the production of female progeny. Individuals with acalculated contribution below a certain threshold for the production ofmales and below a certain threshold for the production of females areculled and the selected individuals are then available for breeding toproduce male and/or female progeny. One produces a mating plan thatminimizes inbreeding and results in the contributions that have beencalculated.

Table 2 below gives an example of the calculated contributions of theselection candidates (male as well as female) to produce male and/orfemale progeny.

TABLE 2 Genetic contributions: Genetic contributions: number of progenynumber of progeny Contribu- Contribu- tion to Se- tion to Se- Selectionproduce lect- Selection produce lect- Candidates fe- ed Candidates fe-ed ID Sex males males Y/N ID Sex males males Y/N 1 male 32 72 Yes 7female 8 32 Yes 2 male 0 48 Yes 8 female 0 0 No 3 male 0 16 Yes 9 female0 16 Yes 4 male 64 56 Yes 10 female 16 40 Yes 5 male 0 0 No 11 female 2440 Yes 6 male 0 0 No 12 female 0 0 No 13 female 8 24 Yes 14 female 40 40Yes 15 female 0 0 No 16 female 0 0 No Total 96 192 Total 96 192

The process may use iteration, most likely evolutionary algorithms, tofind the optimum solution that meets all defined requirements. In thisexample requirements might have been:

-   -   A defined maximum level of increase of inbreeding    -   Maximize genetic improvement given the inbreeding restriction    -   Each contribution is a multiple of 8.

If one defines subgroups of animals, the target for each animal withinone group will be the same.

The financial costs associated with the sex sorting process itself are afactor in its implementation in a production pyramid. These costs,however, can be mitigated by using low dose insemination techniquesdisclosed herein and/or by reducing the number of doses (inseminations)per estrus from two to one using the estrus synchronization techniquesdisclosed herein.

The process of producing sex sorted sperm cell samples is generally timeconsuming and expensive, typically requiring the use of specialized flowcytometry equipment, highly trained technicians and complex processes.Unfortunately, the typical dose of boar sperm cells required forsuccessful fertilization using conventional artificial inseminationtechniques such as intra-cervical insemination is 1×10⁹ sperm cells to3×10⁹ sperm cells, with the typical boar ejaculate containingapproximately 6×10¹⁰ sperm cells. Therefore, the typical boar ejaculatecontains approximately 20 to 60 artificial insemination doses, greatlylimiting the commercial application of sex sorted sperm cell samples inbreeding swine. Furthermore, as noted above, females are generallyinseminated two times per estrus cycle. Accordingly, if the total numberof sperm cells needed for successful fertilization can be reduced, agreater number of artificial insemination doses can be produced for agiven boar in a given amount of time, making the use of sex sorted spermcell samples much more desirable from a commercial standpoint. In orderto widen the commercial application of sex sorted sperm cell samples inswine, certain embodiments of the instant invention encompass methods oflow dose insemination, including insemination via deep intra-uterinecatheter and laparoscopy, and methods of synchronizing estrus. Thesemethods make available the option of reducing the number of malesproduced for breeding in a production pyramid and consequently thenumber of sows used to produce these males used for breeding in aproduction pyramid. Alternatively, instead of reducing the production ofmales used for breeding, genetic dissemination through the productionpyramid may be accelerated by selecting fewer, higher genetic meritmales for breeding at each level of production, which ultimately resultsin higher quality commercial swine.

The following Examples are disclosed by way of example only, and are notintended to limit embodiments of the invention disclosed herein in anyway.

Example 1

In the following Example, one is interested in the prediction of theaverage effect of using Precision Breeding technology in a swinebreeding program using a deterministic method.

Step 1: Define a breeding program without the use of recision BreedingTechnology (control):

Step 1.1: Define the sow herd for a line at the GN based on thefollowing variables:

-   -   Number of sows per parity    -   Number of selected gilts entering the sow herd per period (e.g.        week, year)    -   Maximum parity for Sire lines and for Dam lines    -   Age at production of first and subsequent litters        Step 1.2: Define the population of boars    -   Number of boars selected per period (e.g. week, year)    -   Number of days boars are used for breeding.    -   Age of boar at which first progeny are born        Step 1.3: Production of progeny    -   Available gilts and sows are randomly mated with available boars        and each litter has a 50/50 split between male and female        progeny.    -   8 Piglets per litter (4 male and 4 female) available for        performance test.    -   Number of male and female progeny available for performance test        per period.        Step 1.4: performance test    -   Test eight progeny per litter.    -   NS^(d)=number of gilts to select per period; NPT^(d)=number        performance tested per period. The selected fraction for gilts        (“p^(d)”)=NS^(d)/NPT^(d). Similarly, the selected fraction for        boars (“p^(s)”)=NS^(s)/NPT^(s). The “d” stands for dam and the        “s” stands for sire.    -   p-values can be converted into selection intensities using a        function of p, or looked up in tables.    -   L^(d) is the average age of the sows (dams) when progeny are        born.    -   L^(s) is the average age of boars (sires) when the progeny are        born.    -   Genetic improvement dG=R_(IH)*σ_(H)*(i^(d)+i^(s))/(L^(d)+L^(s)).        The “σ_(H),” genetic variation, is a constant and one assumes        that the accuracy of selection R_(IH) is the same for tested        gilts and boars. So one can evaluate breeding program options by        comparing the (i^(d)+i^(s))/(L^(d)+L^(s)) values.        Step 2: Define a breeding program with the use of Precision        Breeding technology. The following details are important in        addition to what has been described above:        Step 2.1: Define the sow herd:    -   Split sows in subgroups based on genetic merit (“SowGGM”).    -   Number of sows per “Parity*SowGGM” subclass.        Step 2.2: Define the population of boars.    -   Split the period boars are used for breeding into subgroups        based on age and genetic merit (“BoarGGM”).    -   Average age of boars at which progeny are born for each        Age*BoarGGM subgroup.        Step 2.3: Production of progeny    -   For each (Parity*SowGGM)*(Age*BoarGGM) combination (i.e., for        each mating subtype) allocate a certain percentage of male        progeny to be produced with the remainder being female progeny.        If for instance there are two parities and three SowGGM classes,        two boar age classes and two BoarGGM classes, the percentage of        male progeny needs to be allocated to 24 mating classes (i.e.,        2*3*2*2=24).    -   Number of male and female progeny available for performance test        per period    -   % male progeny produced per parity.    -   % male progeny per boar age group.        Step 2.4: performance test    -   Selected gilts and boars are split into subgroups based on their        genetic merit and the group of best individuals will have a        higher selection intensity than the second best group etc. The        ‘i’ value can be calculated for each SowGGM and for each BoarGGM        class.

In the breeding program without Precision Breeding (i.e., the controlsituation), the same sows produce the male and female progeny. In thebreeding program that uses Precision Breeding, the male progeny can beproduced with a different mix of sows than the female progeny.Furthermore, in the control situation, the same boars produce the maleand female progeny. Using Precision Breeding, the male progeny can beproduced with a different mix of boars than the female progeny.Furthermore, when using Precision Breeding, there are effectively twotypes of sows (DD=sows producing female progeny and DS=sows producingmale progeny) and two types of boars (SD=boars producing female progenyand SS=boars producing male progeny). Thus, when using PrecisionBreeding, genetic improvementdG=R_(IH)*σ_(H)*(i^(dd)+i^(ds)+i^(sd)+i^(ss))/(L^(dd)+L^(ds)+L^(sd)+L^(ss)).The σ_(H) is a constant and one assumes that the accuracy of selectionR_(IH) is the same for all tested gilts and boars. Thus, one canevaluate breeding program options by comparing the(i^(dd)+i^(ds)+i^(sd)+i^(ss))/(L^(dd)+L^(ds)+L^(sd)+L^(ss)) values.

Step 3: Maximizing Genetic Progress of the Breeding Program usingPrecision Breeding

Step 3.1: “Control i/t”=(i^(d)+i^(s))/(L^(d)+L^(s)).

Step 3.2: Define options for the percentage of male progeny in thelitters in each of the mating subtypes. Each of the mating subtypesmight have 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or 100% male pigletsproduced. With, for example, 24 mating subtypes, that would result in(11)²⁴ options to evaluate.Step 3.3: “Precision Breedingi/t”=(i^(dd)+i^(ds)+i^(sd)+i^(ss))/(L^(dd)+L^(ds)+L^(sd)+L^(ss)) foreach option.Step 3.4: dG_(ratio)=“Precision Breeding i/t” divided by “Control i/t”.Step 3.5: The option with the highest value fordG_(ratio) is close tothe best.Step 3.6: Define options for the percentage of male progeny in thelitters in each of the mating classes around the best value found instep 3.5 with steps of 1% instead of 10%.Step 3.7: Repeat steps 3.3 to 3.5 and search for the best value.

Alternatively, Step 3 can be performed using evolutionary algorithms.The ‘solution’ starts with a defined solution. This could in our examplebe 50%/50% male/female progeny per litter in each of the 24 matingtypes. The program then defines small deviations (for instance 49/51 and51/49 for each mating type) and finds the best solution. The programthen defines small deviations around the last solution and finds thebest new solution etc., until the solution stabilizes.

Step 4: Repeat the process with different assumptions and for differentstrategies

-   -   For Sire lines or Dam lines.    -   Number of gilts entering the herd per cycle=50, 100, 150, 200,        300 etc.    -   Number of boars used for breeding per cycle=10, 20, 30, 50, 100        etc.    -   Maximum parity=1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.    -   Period boars are used for breeding=35 days, 70 days, 140 days        etc.    -   Split gilts/sows into 2, 3, 4, . . . genetic merit classes (or        don't split).    -   Split breeding boars into 2, 3, 4, . . . genetic merit classes        (or don't split).    -   Etc.

Example 2

Tables 3 to 5 below provide an example of a mating plan in a linedevelopment program that uses Precision Breeding technology. This matingplan comprises 30 females split into three parity subgroups and 4 malessplit into two male age subgroups, with each of those male and femalesubgroups further split into two genetic merit subgroups. A 100%farrowing rate was assumed. Table 3 gives the number of sows in each ofthe 24 mating subtype classes.

TABLE 3 Number of litters per Age females^(b)) Total mating subtype^(a))P1 P2 P3 nr of Age males^(c)) EBV^(d)) 1 2 1 2 1 2 litters 1 1 2 1 2 1 11 8 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 8 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 Nr of females6 6 5 5 4 4 30 ^(a))The table gives the number of litters produced permating subtype (=combination of male subgroup and female subgroup).^(b))Females are split into three subgroups based on age (parity 1, 2and 3). ^(c))Males are split into two subgroups based on age (1 and 2).^(d))Females are split within parity into two EBV subgroups (1 and 2)and males are split within age group into two EBV subgroups (1 and 2).Females are split within parity into two EBV subgroups (1 and 2) andmales are split within age group into two EBV subgroups (1 and 2).

For each of the 24 mating subtypes, a target for the percentage of maleprogeny for each mating subtype is determined that, relative to acontrol, maximizes genetic progress in the line and keeps the increaseof inbreeding at a defined level. Table 4 gives the target percentage ofmale progeny in each of the mating subtype classes.

TABLE 4 % Male progeny per Age females^(b)) mating subtype^(a)) P1 P2 P3Age males^(c)) EBV^(d)) 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 100 100 25 0 0 0 1 2 100 100 250 0 0 2 1 100 25 0 0 0 0 2 2 25 0 0 0 0 0 ^(a))The table gives theaverage percentage of males produced in litters per mating subtype(=combination of male subgroup and female subgroup). ^(b))Females aresplit into three subgroups based on age (parity 1, 2 and 3). ^(c))Malesare split into two subgroups based on age (1 and 2). ^(d))Females aresplit within parity into two EBV subgroups (1 and 2) and males are splitwithin age group into two EBV subgroups (1 and 2).

The data from Tables 3 and 4 can then be used to determine the number ofmale piglets produced and available for performance testing, as shown inTable 5. Under this mating plan, it is assumed that 8 piglets per litterare available for performance testing.

TABLE 5 Nr of male progeny Age females^(b)) Nr of per matingsubtype^(a)) P1 P2 P3 male Age males^(c)) EBV^(d)) 1 2 1 2 1 2 progeny 11 16 8 4 0 0 0 28 1 2 16 8 2 0 0 0 26 2 1 8 4 0 0 0 0 12 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 02 Nr of male progeny 42 20 6 0 0 0 68 ^(a))The table gives the number ofmales produced per mating subtype (=combination of male subgroup andfemale subgroup). ^(b))Females are split into three subgroups based onage (parity 1, 2 and 3). ^(c))Males are split into two subgroups basedon age (1 and 2). ^(d))Females are split within parity into two EBVsubgroups (1 and 2) and males are split within age group into two EBVsubgroups (1 and 2).

In this mating plan example, of all 240 progeny available forperformance testing, 68 (28%) are male.

Example 3

The following Example demonstrates that by increasing the number ofcriteria to split males or females into subgroups (e.g. EBV, age, parityetc.), by increasing the number of subgroups for a given criterion, orby defining both male and female subgroups, one may increase the geneticprogress of a line.

Programs using precision breeding (PB) were compared with a controlprogram using a deterministic approach as described in Example 1.

Program Parameters for Sire Line

-   -   150 first parity sows per cycle    -   10 boars selected per cycle of 5 months    -   Boars split into 2 age groups and 2 EBV classes resulting in 4        subgroups    -   Sows split into 2 age groups (parity 1 and 2) and 3 EBV classes        resulting in 6 subgroups    -   24 mating subtypes (4*6)        Program Parameters for Dam Line    -   200 first parity sows per cycle    -   15 boars selected per cycle of 5 months    -   Boars split into 2 age groups and 2 EBV classes resulting in 4        subgroups    -   Sows split into 3 age groups (parity 1, 2 and 3-5) and 3 EBV        classes resulting in 9 subgroups    -   36 mating subtypes (4*9).

For the mating plan for the line that uses Precision Breedingtechnology, males were classified into two age groups: “younger males”(the first three months they are used) and “older males” (the subsequentthree month period). The males were further classified by their EBVsinto two groups (“HH” and “H”), with the first group comprising the verybest boars (“HH”) and second group comprising the second best boars(“H”). The females of a sire line were classified into two age groups:“1” (parity 1) and “2” (parity 2) while the females of a dam line wereclassified into three age groups: “1” (parity 1), “2” (parity 2) and “3”(parity 3-5). The gilts/sows were further classified into three groupsof equal size based on their EBVs (“HH,” “H” and “M,” from highest tolowest breeding value).

Control: 50% Male Progeny in Each Mating Subtype

PB-1: Same optimal percentage of male progeny in each mating subtype

PB-2: Optimal percentage of males in the first litter and 100% femalesin subsequent litters.

PB-3s: Sire line. The youngest boars are used on gilts to produce firstlitters with optimal percentage males. The oldest boars are used on sowsto produce second litters with 100% females.

PB-3d: Dam line: The youngest boars are used on gilts to produce firstlitters with optimal percentage males and on sows to produce the secondlitters with 100% females. The oldest boars are used on sows to produceparity 2-5 litters with 100% females.

PB-4-s: Sire line: Same as PB-3s but now making use of the EBV classes.The percentage of male progeny is optimized in each of the 6 EBV classes(2 boar EBV and 3 gilt EBV classes).

PB-4-d: Dam line: Same as PB-3d but now making use of the EBV classes.

PB-5: Increase the number of EBV classes

PB-6: Each individual is treated as an EBV class.

Evaluation was carried out for the programs PB-1 to PB-4. The last twoprograms, PB-5 and PB-6, have been estimated by extrapolating results.Results are summarized in FIG. 2, which shows that increased levels ofsophistication in Precision Breeding lead to a larger impact on dG, upto about +10% in sire lines and +13% in dam lines. The overallpercentage of male pigs drops to about 20% in sire lines and 15% in damlines.

Example 4—Preparation of Sex Sorted Boar Sperm Cell Samples

The following process for the preparation of a sex sorted boar spermcell sample is provided by non-limiting example only. The first step inthe manufacture of sex sorted boar sperm cell sample is to obtain anejaculate from a suitable boar. Once the ejaculate has been collected,it can be extended in a suitable extender, that may include anantioxidant. A sperm rich fraction of the ejaculate can then be diluted.If the sample needs to be transported prior to sex-selection, the samplecan be held at a temperature of 0-39° C. (typically 16-17° C.) forbetween about 12 hours to about 18 hours while it is being shipped fromthe collection point to the flow cytometer for the sex-sorting process.

Once the sperm cell sample is in the laboratory, various quality checkscan be conducted on the sperm cell sample including checking themotility (e.g., via CASA System), viability (e.g., via flow cytometer),morphology (e.g., via microscopy) and concentration (e.g., viaNucleoCounter). Sperm cell samples that pass these quality checks arethen prepared for sorting.

Prior to putting the sample through the flow cytometer, the sample isstained with a DNA selective dye, exposed to a quenching dye to form astained sperm cell sample, which is subsequently placed into a spermcell source of the flow cytometer. Specifically, the sperm cell samplein some embodiments, can be first diluted with a buffer or extender,such as BTS (see Table 6) to a final concentration which in some casescan be 100×10⁶ cells/ml, and the DNA selective dye Hoechst 33342 (can be5 mg/ml in MiliQ water; Ref: B-2261) is then added, a good workingconcentration can be about 5 μl/100 million cells/ml but DNA dye can beused at lower and higher concentrations in the range of 0.5 to 20 ul/100million cells/ml. The sample is then usually placed in covered bathwater between 30 and 42° C. (usually close to 35° C.) for between 10 minand 12 hours, with exceptional staining at about 50 minutes, and thensubsequently placed in a dark area at room temperature (21-22° C.) priorto sorting. Before sorting the sample, the sample is filtered to removelarge debris and cells (for example with CellTricks of 0.30 μm) andafter filtering, red food dye may be added (when added, usually 0.5-5μl, or 1 μl of a 25 mg/ml stock solution in MiliQ water) or anotherquenching dye, can be added to the sample. The sample can then be sortedusing a flow cytometer with a sheath fluid which in some cases maycomprise the components as listed in Table 7, but other sheath fluidsmay be used as well.

FIG. 3 illustrates, in schematic form, part of a flow cytometer used tosort a sperm cell sample to form one or more subpopulations, the flowcytometer being generally referenced as 10. In this particularembodiment, sex sorting is taking place so the subpopulations areX-chromosome bearing sperm cells and Y-chromosome bearing sperm cells.FIG. 3 represents a single technique for sorting sperm, but any knowntechnique for sorting cells known in the art can be used with certainembodiments of the invention.

The flow cytometer 10 of FIG. 3 can be programmed by an operator togenerate two charged droplet streams, one containing X-chromosomebearing sperm cells, charged positively, 12, one containing Y-chromosomebearing sperm cells, charged negatively 13 while an unchargedundeflected stream of dead cells 14 simply goes to waste.

An operator may also choose to program the flow cytometer in such amanner, that both the X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm are collectedusing a “high purity sort” (in other words only live X- and Y-chromosomebearing sperm are collected) or to program the flow cytometer to collectboth the X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm using an “enriched sort” (inother words it will collect droplets containing live cells that were notpreviously sorted and excluding all initial dead cells again by the useof Boolean Gate logic available with the computer that controls the flowcytometer). The Boolean Gate logic can also be used to collect only oneof either the X- or Y-chromosome bearing sperm.

Initially, a stream of sperm cells under pressure, is deposited into thenozzle 15 from the sperm cell source 11 in a manner such that they areable to be coaxially surrounded by a sheath fluid supplied to the nozzle15 under pressure from a sheath fluid source 16. An oscillator 17 whichmay be present can be very precisely controlled via an oscillatorcontrol mechanism 18, creating pressure waves within the nozzle 15 whichare transmitted to the coaxially surrounded sperm cell stream as itleaves the nozzle orifice 19. As a result, the exiting coaxiallysurrounded sperm cell stream 20 could eventually and regularly formdroplets 21.

The charging of the respective droplet streams is made possible by thecell sensing system 22 which includes a laser 23 which illuminates thenozzle exiting stream 20, and the light emission of the fluorescingstream is detected by a sensor 24. The information received by thesensor 24 is fed to a sorter discrimination system 25 which very rapidlymakes the decision as to whether to charge a forming droplet and if sowhich charge to provide the forming drop and then charges the droplet 21accordingly.

A characteristic of X-chromosome bearing sperm is that they absorb morefluorochrome dye than Y-chromosome bearing sperm because of the presenceof more DNA, and as such, the amount of light emitted by the laserexcited absorbed dye in the X-chromosome bearing sperm differs from thatof the Y-chromosome bearing sperm and this difference communicates tothe sorter discrimination system 25 the type of charge to apply to theindividual droplets which theoretically contain only a single X- orY-chromosome bearing sperm cell. Dead cells (or those about to die)typically absorb the quenching dye which is communicated to the sorterdiscrimination system 25 not to apply a charge to the dropletscontaining such cells.

The charged or uncharged droplet streams then pass between a pair ofelectrostatically charged plates 26, which cause them to be deflectedeither one way or the other or not at all depending on their charge intorespective collection vessels 28 and 29 to form respectively a genderenriched population of X-chromosome bearing and a gender enrichedY-chromosome bearing sperm cells having a DNA selective dye associatedwith their DNA. The uncharged non-deflected sub-population streamcontaining dead cells (or those about to die) go to the waste container30.

The sex sorted sperm cell sample is collected in a 50 ml tube with 2.5ml of catch fluid, which in some embodiments can be TesTrisGlucose (TTG)(see Table 8) with 2% of egg yolk, for every 20 million cells. In thisembodiment, the sex sorted sperm cell sample will typically have a finalvolume of approximately 24 ml at about 1×10⁶ cells per ml. This tube isthen stored at room temperature in a dark room for about 2 hours.

TABLE 6 BTS Extender CHEMICALS SYGMA CODE g/liter Glucose G6152 36.941Sodium Citrate S4641 5.999 Sodium Bicarbonate S5761 1.261 EDTA ED2SS1.250 Potassium Chloride P3911 0.7456 Kanamycin sulfate K4000 0.05

TABLE 7 Sheath Fluid (PBS) CHEMICALS SYGMA CODE g/liter Sodium ChlorideS9888 8 Potassium Chloride P3911 0.2 SodiumphosphatemonobasicmonohydrateS9638 0.12 Sodiumphosphatedibasicheptahydrate S9390 1.717 EDTA acidE6758 1 Penicillin G potassium salt PENK 0.058 Streptomycin SulfateS6501 0.05

TABLE 8 TesTrisGlucose (TTG) CHEMICALS SYGMA CODE g/100 ml TES T1375 5TRIS T1503 0.68 GLUCOSE G6152 0.6 KANAMICYN K4000 0.005

Once the sex sorted sperm cell sample has been obtained, it can be usedwith conventional artificial insemination procedures, such asintra-cervical insemination, in vitro fertilization or artificialinsemination with deep intrauterine catheter or laparoscopy.Alternatively, the sex sorted sperm cell sample can be cryopreserved forstorage and then subsequently thawed out for use at a later time.

Example 5—Cryopreservation of Sex Sorted Boar Sperm Cell Samples

Once the sex sorted boar sperm cell sample has been manufactured, thesperm cell sample can be optionally cryopreserved for transport orstorage for use at a later time. The following method of freezing can beused with the invention, but is presented by way of example only—anycryopreservation method known in the art can be used.

After sorting, the 50 ml tubes containing the sex sorted sperm cells(with 20 million cells) can be divided into tubes of 15 ml, withapproximately 12 ml of a sex-select sperm cell sample semen in eachtube, each containing approximately 10 million sex sorted sperm cells.Theses tubes can be centrifuged at 3076 g at 21° C. for 4 minutes. Thesupernatant decanted, and the pellet can remain with some of thesupernatant in approximately 50 μl.

To each pellet, a first freezing medium, that may comprise a solution of20% egg-yolk and 80% β-Lactose, can then be added at room temperature.The motility of the sperm cells can then be checked. If acceptable, thetubes can be taken to a programmable temperature control machine(PolyScience—MiniTube) or can be manually handled to decrease thetemperature from about 21° C. to about 5° C. over a period of about 2hours. After the timed temperature shift, the samples can be placed in acold room at about 5° C. where a second freezing medium, which maycomprise egg-yolk, β-Lactose, Glycerol and Equex Stem, or may justcomprise a cryopreservative such as glycerol, or the cryopreservativewith an osmotic stabilizer which is previously cooled to 5° C. is addedto the samples. After 10 minutes, the sex sorted sperm cell samples canbe placed in artificial insemination straws, and the straws then exposedto liquid nitrogen vapors (approximately 4 cm from the liquid nitrogen)for a short period of time (e.g. 10 minutes) and then placed directlyinto the liquid nitrogen for long term preservation.

When the sex sorted semen samples are ready for use, the straws can beunfrozen by thawing/warming the straws (e.g. place in a water bath setat about 37° C. for about 15 seconds). Post-thaw, motility and viabilityof the sperm cells can then be analyzed at 30, 90 and/or 150 minutes forstandard comparisons.

Example 6—Estrus Synchronization

The invention contemplates that for convenience purposes, estrus can besynchronized and/or timed ovulation induced in one or more sows to beinseminated. Furthermore, because sex sorted sperm is oftenpre-capacitated, it is important to inseminate a sow withinapproximately 6 hours of ovulation. Synchronized estrus or timedovulation helps assure this will be the case. Generally speaking thisentails administering one or more hormone or hormone analogs to thesow(s) to be inseminated. There are several ways to induce estrus/timedovulation in gilts, which are described below.

The one or more hormone or hormone analogs can be administered to thesow in order to establish estrus synchronization as well as time ofovulation. These hormones and hormone analogs typically include, forexample, PG600, OvuGel, eCG, hCG, and/or progestin, and can beadministered manually with timed injections or with the assistance of aprogrammable device placed in the reproductive tract of the sow. Theprogrammable device contemplated herein releases one or more hormone orhormone analogs in a time released fashion without the breeder having tomonitor the device or provide any input other than programming theinitial parameters for release of said one or more hormone or hormoneanalogs. Any of the following methods for inducing and/or synchronizingestrus known in the art may be used generally with the invention,including the following.

(a) Transport and Boar Induced Estrus.

Gilts typically attain puberty at approximately 180-210 days of age.However, the natural attainment of puberty is influenced by manyintrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as genotype, environment and boarcontact. Many breeders and farmers indicate that the first estrus iscommonly observed when gilts are six months of age. The onset of estrusoften coincides with relocation or transport of animals from the giltmultiplier to the commercial farm. Undoubtedly, the best-known stressfactor in pigs is that of transportation. If the age of gilts at thetime of transport is close to the normal onset of puberty, approximately25-35% of gilts will display estrus within one week after transport.This transport-induced estrus can serve to synchronize a proportion ofgilts.

Although transport may induce estrus, it is evident that boar contact isa potent form of puberty stimulation. The major factor controlling theefficiency of boar contact as a puberty stimulus is the age of the giltat the time of boar introduction. When boar contact is initiated whengilts are 4 months of age, the pubertal response is minimal. It wassuggested that the young gilt may become habituated to the boar stimulusat a stage in development when she is too young to respond. Conversely,when boar introduction is delayed until the immediate prepubertal period(6 months of age and above), the response is again limited for adifferent reason. By virtue of the relatively old ages, i.e. 6 months,of gilts at introduction, the actual pubertal ages of these gilts arenot much reduced below those of unstimulated animals. When boarintroduction occurs at gilt ages in the region of 160 days, both theinterval from first boar contact to puberty and gilt age at puberty areminimized, while maximum synchronization of the pubertal estrus occurs.

(b) Oral and Time-Release Progestins.

This approach to estrus synchronization utilizes suppression of ovarianactivity through the administration of orally administered progesteroneor synthetic progestins. Some progestins can be obtained that aretimed-release injectible forms, such as altrenogest (see below). Feedingcyclic gilts individually or in groups at a rate of 15-30 mgaltrenogest/pig/day for 14 to 18 consecutive days produces a synchronousonset of estrus between 2 and 8 days after the last progestin feeding.

(c) Gonadotropins.

eCG/hCG (PG600R) Presently, the most common exogenous hormonecombination for induction of follicle growth and ovulation in acyclicfemales is a combination of eCG, formerly called pregnant mare's serumgonadotropin (PMSG), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The productPG600R contains 400 IU PMSG and 200 IU hCG. This hormone can bepurchased as a combination drug and is cost-effective for the inductionof estrus and ovulation in acyclic pigs. Gilts usually show estrus 3-6days after treatment and the time of ovulation is approximately 110-120hours. The response rate is enhanced if gilts are given daily boarcontact, beginning at the time of treatment. PG600 comprises pregnantmare's serum gonadotropin, otherwise known as equine chorionicgonadotropin (“PMSG” or “eCG”) and human chorionic gonadotropin (“hCG”)(Intervet). OvuGel is another commercially available gonadotropin(triptorelin acetate) in a slow release formula which can beadministered via an intravaginal delivery system (Gel Med Sciences,Inc.).

(d) Prostaglandins.

PGF₂ alpha is effective for inducing luteolysis, abortion, and a promptreturn to estrus in pregnant (and pseudopregnant) gilts beyond thesecond week of pregnancy. One method for synchronization is to pen-mategilts for three weeks and then, treat with PGF₂ alpha two weeks later.

(e) Time-Release Hormones.

Another method involves the direct injection of a commercially availablepreparation, such as altrenogest or regumate, at a specific time pointin the estrus cycle. For example, in one embodiment of the invention,synchronization and timed ovulation is achieved by administering on day11-14 of a gilt's estrus cycle, 15-30 mg altrenogest/day for 4 to 7days. 24 hours after stopping altrenogest, 400 to 2000 IU of PMSG can beadministered, and then 500 to 1000 IU of hCG, 72 to 83 hours later.

Example 7—Ovulation Detection

Ovulation detection in a sow can be done by examining the sow'sfollicles. The realization of the importance of establishing an adequatesperm reservoir in the oviduct at an appropriate time relative toovulation is critical in the management of artificial insemination inswine. In particular, knowledge of when a sow is likely to ovulateduring estrus is highly beneficial to achieving successful insemination.To that end, in a particular embodiment of the invention, sow'sfollicles are examined using ultrasound after the induction of estrus.In a specific embodiment of the invention, the sow's ovaries areexamined by transrectal ultrasound every 4 hours beginning 30 hoursafter hCG injection for the presence of pre-ovulatory follicles. Sowsshowing multiple pre-ovulatory follicles (diameter of antrum >6 mm) areselected for insemination 2-3 hours after ultrasound.

Example 8—Insemination Using Laparoscopy or Deep Intrauterine Catheter

Once the sex sorted boar semen sample has been prepared, the sample canbe used to inseminate a sow. Any conventional artificial inseminationtechnique can be used in the invention, including intra-cervicalinsemination. However, deep intrauterine catheters and laparoscopy areparticularly relevant in swine, since they allow for the use of areduced dose of sperm cells for successful fertilization, in partbecause they are able to place the sperm cells in key areas of the sow'sreproductive tract, including but not limited to the uterine horns, theoviducts, the ampulla, the isthmus and the utero-tubal junction. The useof reduced sperm cell doses allows the use of far fewer geneticallysuperior boars for breeding purposes, which has the benefits of reducingcosts to breeders and reducing the environmental harm that results fromhaving to maintain a large number of boars.

(a) Insemination Using Deep Intrauterine Catheter.

The use of a deep intrauterine catheter allows one to place sperm cellsinto the uterine horns of the sow and ideally at the utero-tubaljunction. The use and construction of such a deep intrauterine catheteris disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,695,767, the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Such a deepintrauterine catheter can optionally comprise a video camera or scope toallow the operator to see the path of the catheter, so that a choicebetween placing sperm cells in one or both of the uterine horns can bemade. Alternatively, the location of the deep intrauterine catheter canbe visualized within a reproductive tract of a sow when used inconjunction with a radiographic or fluoroscopic device. Because of itslength, a deep intrauterine catheter allows the operator to reach distalregions of a sow's reproductive tract, including the uterinehorns—regions that would be unreachable using a standard catheter usedfor artificial insemination. In one embodiment of the invention, thelength of the deep intrauterine catheter is 1.8 m, 1-2 m, 1-2.5 m, 1-3m, 2-3 m, 2-3.5 m or 2.5-3 m.

The deep intrauterine catheter can be introduced inside of the cervicalduct of a sow in estrus which may be superovulated but may also benaturally cycling or otherwise induced. A non-toxic lubricant liquid canbe applied onto the catheter to facilitate its passage through thevagina. The catheter can comprise an outer tube or sheath and a flexibleprobe within the outer tube or sheath. In one embodiment of theinvention, once the catheter has been advanced to the cervical duct, theflexible probe can be further advanced within the outer tube of thecatheter. The flexible probe can be advanced until reaching the anteriorportion of a uterine horn. When the flexible probe is advanced withinthe uterine horn, it can bend and thus continue to follow the tortuouspath of the uterine horn. Although it is not absolutely necessary,introduction of small volumes of liquid through the outer tube of thecatheter can facilitate progression of the flexible probe at its passagethrough the cervical duct and its progression through the uterine horn.Once the flexible probe has been introduced up to its final positionwithin the uterine horn, a sperm cell sample contained in a syringebeing connected to the proximal end of the flexible probe and can beintroduced—through a flexible duct within the flexible probe—into theuterine environment. So as to avoid losses of sperm cells and to ensurethat the sperm cell sample has been completely evacuated from theflexible duct, a small volume of liquid can be subsequently introducedthrough the flexible duct. Thereafter, the catheter, comprising theouter tube and the flexible probe, can be withdrawn. In another aspectof the invention, this process can also be used for transferring embryosinto a uterine horn or removing embryos from a uterine horn.

(b) Insemination Using Laparoscopy.

Use of laparoscopy to inseminate a sow has the advantage that theplacement of sperm cells within the sow's reproductive tract can be evenmore precise than with the use of a catheter, thus further enabling theuse of reduced sperm cell doses for insemination. Specific areas of theuterus can be targeted, such as the oviduct, the isthmus, ampulla, orthe utero-tubal junction. By way of a non-limiting example, thefollowing procedure can be used with the invention to inseminate a sowvia laparoscopy.

For example, a 50 ml tube containing 24 ml of a sex sorted sperm cellsample having about 1×10⁶ sperm cells per ml can be divided into 2 tubesof 15 ml and centrifuged at about 3076 g at a temperature in the rangeof about 21° C. for several minutes (2-5 or 4 minutes). The supernatantcan be recentrifuged under the same conditions if needed. The resultingsemen pellets are then mixed and the concentration checked (viaNucleoCounter). The concentrated sex sorted sperm cell sample is thendiluted with BTS to a final concentration of 10×10⁶ cells/ml and themotility and viability of the sperm cells is checked. (The sperm cellsample should be maintained at room temperature (21° C.) during theentire process.)

Sows can be grouped or separated, for instance they can be allocatedindividually to stalls in a mechanically ventilated confinementfacility. Sows (2-6 parity) are weaned at about 21 days. Estrus can thenbe induced by injecting each female intramuscularly with about 1250 IUequine chorionic gonadotrophin (eCG; Folligon, Intervet InternationalB.V., Boxmeer, The Netherlands—or an equivalent compound) 24 hours afterweaning; 72 hours later, they are treated with about 750 IU humanchorionic gonadotrophin (hCG; VeterinCorion, Divasa, Farmavic S.A.,Barcelona, Spain) or an equivalent. Estrus detection is performed once aday (for instance at 7:00 a.m.), beginning 2 days after eCG injection.One way to detect estrus is to allow females nose to nose contact with amature boar and by applying back pressure, to identify sows that exhibita standing heat reflex, which are considered to be in estrus; at whichpoint the ovaries can be scanned. The ovaries can be examined atperiodic intervals (e.g. every 4 hours) for mature follicles starting atabout 30 hours after hCG injection by transrectal ultrasonography usinga 5 MHz multiple scan angle transducer, to look for the presence ofpre-ovulatory follicles. Only sows showing multiple pre-ovulatoryfollicles (diameter of antrum >6 mm) are selected for insemination.Inseminations are carried out within 2-3 h after ultrasonography.

Laparoscopic inseminations can then be performed on these sows oncesedated (which may be by azaperone administration; Stresnil; 2 mg/kgbody weight, i.m.). General anesthesia can also be induced with acompound such as sodium thiopental (Abbot; 7 mg/kg body weight, i.v.)and maintained with halothane (3.5-5%) or a similar compound. Forsurgery, the sow can be placed in the supine position, and if available,on her back in a laparoscopy cradle. If a cradle is used, it is placedin a Trendelenburg position (hind quarters upward, with the headpointing down) at an angle of approximately 20° above horizontal.

In one embodiment, an incision (about 1.5 cm) is made close to theumbilicus. The edges of the incision can then be pulled up withcountertraction and a 12 mm Optiview trocar (Ethicon Endo-surgeryCincinnati Ohio, USA) with an inserted 0° laparoscope is advanced intothe wound. At the umbilicus, the subcutaneous fatty tissue, the anteriorfascia of the rectus muscles, the rectus muscles, the posterior fasciaof the rectus muscles, the transversalis fascia and the peritoneum aretraversed by slight cutting and moderate pressure. The process iscontrolled via monitor feedback. Although the CO₂ tubing is connected tothe trocar, inflation does not begin until the peritoneum is punctured.After the peritoneal cavity is entered and the pneumoperitoneum started,the handpiece of the Optiview is removed and replaced by the 0°laparoscope. The abdominal cavity is inflated to 14 mmHg with CO₂. Twoaccessory ports are placed in the right and left part of the hemiabdomen, which provides access for laparoscopic Duval forceps formanipulating the uterine horn and grasping the oviduct for theinsemination needle, respectively. The oviduct is grasped with the Duvalforceps in the isthmus region. Then the dose-flow (containing 0.3-0.5million of spermatozoa in 0.1 ml) is inserted, and sex sortedspermatozoa are flushed into the oviduct. The procedure is then repeatedon the other oviduct. After both oviducts are inseminated, the trocarsare removed and incision wounds sutured.

Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the inventiondescribed above includes many inventive embodiments, including at leastthe following:

A. A method of increasing genetic merit of swine comprising the stepsof:

establishing a plurality of mating subtypes for a line;

determining a percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or a percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, that would result, relative to a control, in anincrease in genetic merit in the line;

sorting a sperm cell sample from a male swine in one of the matingsubtypes into one or more subpopulations of sperm cells, wherein atleast 60% of sperm cells in a subpopulation of sperm cells bear Xchromosomes or Y chromosomes; and

inseminating one or more female swine in the one of the mating subtypeswith the subpopulation of sperm cells to achieve the percentage ofprogeny that are male or the percentage of progeny that are femaledetermined to increase genetic merit relative to a control.A1. The method of A, wherein the percentage of progeny that are male, orthe percentage of progeny that are female, determined to increasegenetic merit, does not increase inbreeding in the line relative to thecontrol.A2. The method of A or A1, wherein the line comprises a sire line or damline.A3. The method of any of A to A2, wherein in the control, approximately50% of progeny are male.A4. The method of any of A to A3, wherein in the control, all femaleswine to be mated are inseminated with unsorted semen samples.A5. The method of any of A to A4, wherein a category of male swine inone or more of the mating subtypes is defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or age.A6. The method of any of A to A5, wherein a category of female swine inone or more of the mating subtypes is defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or parity.A7. The method of any of A to A6, wherein the percentage of sperm cellsin the subpopulation of sperm cells that bear X chromosomes or Ychromosomes is selected from the group consisting of at least 65%, atleast 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, atleast 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99% and atleast 100%.A8. The method of any of A to A7, wherein the line comprises a sire lineand the percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 10 to 35%.A9. The method of A8, wherein the percentage of progeny that are malefor the line is between approximately 15 to 30%.A10. The method of any of A to A7, wherein the line comprises a dam lineand the percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 5 to 30%.A11. The method of A10, wherein the percentage of progeny that are malefor the line is between approximately 10 to 25%.A12. The method of any of A to A7, wherein the percentage of progenythat are male for each of the mating subtypes, or the percentage ofprogeny that are female for each of the mating subtypes is betweenapproximately 0 to 10% or between approximately 90 to 100% and anyproduced progeny are members of a daughter nucleus or a multiplier.A13. The method of any of A to A12, wherein each of the mating subtypesin the plurality of mating subtypes comprises only one male swine oronly one female swine from the line.A14. The method of any of A to A13, wherein each of the mating subtypesin the plurality of mating subtypes comprises only one male swine andonly one female swine from the line.A15. The method of any of A to A14, wherein the determined percentagesare determined using a stochastic or a deterministic method.A16. The method of any of A to A15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of one or more dam line traits.A17. The method of any of A to A15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of one or more sire line traits.A18. The method of any of A or A15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of a selection index.A19. The method of any of A or A15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of EBV.A20. The method of A18, wherein the selection index is a function ofdata derived from a group comprising the male or the female.A21. The method of A16, wherein the traits comprise fertility, littersize and milk production.A22. The method of A17, wherein the traits comprise feed efficiency,average daily gain and carcass lean.A23. The method of any of A to A22, wherein inseminating the one or morefemale swine comprises administering the subpopulation to a reproductivetract of the one or more female swine using a deep intrauterine catheteror a needle inserted through a membrane of the one or more female swine.A24. The method of A23, wherein administering the subpopulation to areproductive tract of the one or more female swine using a deepintrauterine catheter comprises placing said sperm cells in one or moreuterine horns.A25. The method of A23 or A24, wherein said deep intrauterine cathetercomprises a video camera or scope.A26. The method of any of A23 to A25, further comprising the step ofvisualizing the deep intrauterine catheter via radiography orfluoroscopy while inserted in said sow's reproductive tract.A27. The method of any of A to A26, wherein the subpopulation comprises1×10⁹ or less sperm cells.A28. The method of A23, wherein administering the subpopulation to areproductive tract of the one or more female swine using a needleinserted through a membrane of the one or more female swine comprisesinjecting the subpopulation into one or more oviducts of the one or morefemale swine.A29. The method of A28, further comprising the step of visualizing saidneedle being inserted into said one or more oviducts via a laparoscopeor video camera.A30. The method of any of A to A23 and A28 to A29, wherein thesubpopulation comprises 1×10⁶ or less sperm cells.A31. The method of any of A to A30 further comprising the step ofsynchronizing estrus or inducing timed ovulation in the one or morefemale swine by administering one or more hormone or hormone analogs tothe one or more female swine.A32. The method of A31, wherein the one or more hormone or hormoneanalogs comprises PG600, OvuGel, eCG, progestin, hCG, altrenogest orregumate.A33. The method of A31 or A32, wherein the one or more hormone orhormone analog is administered by a programmable device placed in thereproductive tract of the one or more female swine.A34. The method of any of A to A33, further comprising the step ofdetecting ovulation in the one or more female swine by examining one ormore follicles of the one or more female swine.A35. The method of A34, wherein the one or more follicles are examinedusing ultrasound.A36. The method of any of A to A35, comprising the additional step ofselecting parents based on phenotypic measurement.A37. The method of any of A to A35, comprising the additional step ofselecting parents for the line based on genotype.A38. The method of any of A to A35, comprising the additional step ofselecting parents using mutation assisted selection.A39. The method of any of A to A35, wherein genetic merit is based onphenotypic measurement.A40. The method of any of A to A35, wherein genetic merit is based ongenotype.A41. The method of any of A to A40, wherein the male swine or the one ormore female swine are members of a genetic nucleus, a daughter nucleusor a multiplier.A42. The method of any of A to A40, wherein the male swine or the one ormore female swine are members of a genetic nucleus.A43. The method of any of A to A42, wherein the step of establishing aplurality of mating subtypes for a line is performed as part of abreeding program.A44. The method of any of A to A42, wherein the step of establishing aplurality of mating subtypes for a line is performed as part of creatinga mating plan for the line.A45. The method of any of A to A44, wherein each of the mating subtypesfor the line is comprised of a male subgroup or a female subgroup.A46. The method of A45, wherein the male subgroup or the female subgroupis defined or based on one more criteria comprising function in theproduction pyramid, parity, age, genetic merit, genetic markers, orgenetic mutations.B. A method of increasing genetic merit of swine comprising the stepsof:establishing a plurality of mating subtypes for a line; anddetermining a percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or a percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, that would result, relative to a control, in anincrease in genetic merit in the line.B1. The method of B, wherein the percentage of progeny that are male, orthe percentage of progeny that are female, determined to increasegenetic merit, does not increase inbreeding in the line relative to thecontrol.B2. The method of B or B1, wherein the line comprises a sire line or damline.B3. The method of any of B to B2, wherein in the control, approximately50% of progeny are male.B4. The method of any of B to B3, wherein in the control, all femaleswine to be mated are inseminated with unsorted semen samples.B5. The method of any of B to B4, wherein a category of male swine inone or more of the mating subtypes is defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or age.B6. The method of any of B to B5, wherein a category of female swine inone or more of the mating subtypes is defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or parity.B7. The method of any of B to B6, wherein at least 80% of sperm cells inthe first subpopulation bear X chromosomes or wherein at least 80% ofsperm cells in the first subpopulation bear Y chromosomes.B8. The method of any of B to B7, wherein the line comprises a sire lineand the percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 10 to 35%.B9. The method of B8, wherein the percentage of progeny that are malefor the line is between approximately 15 to 30%.B10. The method of any of B to B7, wherein the line comprises a dam lineand the percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 5 to 30%.B11. The method of B10, wherein the percentage of progeny that are malefor the line is between approximately 10 to 25%.B12. The method of any of B to B7, wherein the percentage of progenythat are male for each of the mating subtypes, or the percentage ofprogeny that are female for each of the mating subtypes is betweenapproximately 0 to 10% or between approximately 90 to 100% and theproduced progeny are members of a daughter nucleus or a multiplier.B13. The method of any of B to B12, wherein each of the mating subtypesin the plurality of mating subtypes comprises only one male swine oronly one female swine from the line.B14. The method of any of B to B13, wherein each of the mating subtypesin the plurality of mating subtypes comprises only one male swine andonly one female swine from the line.B15. The method of any of B to B14, wherein the determined percentagesare determined using a stochastic or a deterministic method.B16. The method of any of B to B15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of one or more dam line traits.B17. The method of any of B to B15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of one or more sire line traits.B18. The method of any of B or B15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of a selection index.B19. The method of any of B or B15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of EBV.B20. The method of B18, wherein the selection index is a function ofdata derived from a group comprising the male or the female.B21. The method of B16, wherein the traits comprise fertility, littersize and milk production.B22. The method of B17, wherein the traits comprise feed efficiency,average daily gain and carcass lean.C. A method of increasing genetic merit in a sire line comprising thesteps of:sorting one or more sperm cell samples from one or more male swine inthe sire line into one or more subpopulations of sperm cells, wherein atleast 70% of sperm cells in a subpopulation bear X chromosomes or Ychromosomes; andinseminating one or more female swine in the sire line with thesubpopulation to achieve a percentage of progeny that are male for thesire line that is between approximately 10 to 35%.C1. The method of C, wherein the percentage of progeny that are male forthe sire line is between approximately 15 to 30%.C2. The method of C or C1, wherein inseminating the one or more femaleswine comprises administering the subpopulation to a reproductive tractof the one or more female swine using a deep intrauterine catheter or aneedle inserted through a membrane of the one or more female swine.C3. The method of C2, wherein administering the subpopulation to areproductive tract of the one or more female swine using a deepintrauterine catheter comprises placing said sperm cells in one or moreuterine horns.C4. The method of C2 or C3, wherein said deep intrauterine cathetercomprises a video camera or scope.C5. The method of any of C2 to C4, further comprising the step ofvisualizing the deep intrauterine catheter via radiography orfluoroscopy while inserted in said sow's reproductive tract.C6. The method of any of C to C5, wherein the subpopulation comprises1×10⁹ or less sperm cells.C7. The method of C2 or C6, wherein administering the subpopulation to areproductive tract of the one or more female swine using a needleinserted through a membrane of the one or more female swine comprisesinjecting the subpopulation into one or more oviducts of the one or morefemale swine.C8. The method of C7, further comprising the step of visualizing saidneedle being inserted into said one or more oviducts via a laparoscopeor video camera.C9. The method of any of C to C8, wherein the subpopulation comprises1×10⁶ or less sperm cells.C10. The method of any of C to C9 further comprising the step ofsynchronizing estrus or inducing timed ovulation in the one or morefemale swine by administering one or more hormone or hormone analogs tothe one or more female swine.C11. The method of C10, wherein the one or more hormone or hormoneanalogs comprises PG600, OvuGel, eCG, progestin, hCG, altrenogest orregumate.C12. The method of C10 or C11, wherein the one or more hormone orhormone analog is administered by a programmable device placed in thereproductive tract of the one or more female swine.C13. The method of any of C to C12, further comprising the step ofdetecting ovulation in the one or more female swine by examining one ormore follicles of the one or more female swine.C14. The method of C13, wherein the one or more follicles are examinedusing ultrasound.D. A method of increasing genetic merit in a dam line comprising thesteps of:sorting one or more sperm cell samples from one or more male swine inthe dam line into one or more subpopulations of sperm cells, wherein atleast 70% of sperm cells in a subpopulation bear X chromosomes or Ychromosomes; andinseminating one or more female swine in the dam line with thesubpopulation to achieve a percentage of progeny that are male for thedam line that is between approximately 5 to 30%.D1. The method of D, wherein the percentage of progeny that are male forthe dam line is between approximately 10 to 25%.D2. The method of D or D1, wherein inseminating the one or more femaleswine comprises administering the subpopulation to a reproductive tractof the one or more female swine using a deep intrauterine catheter or aneedle inserted through a membrane of the one or more female swine.D3. The method of D2, wherein administering the subpopulation to areproductive tract of the one or more female swine using a deepintrauterine catheter comprises placing said sperm cells in one or moreuterine horns.D4. The method of D2 or D3, wherein said deep intrauterine cathetercomprises a video camera or scope.D5. The method of any of D2 to D4, further comprising the step ofvisualizing the deep intrauterine catheter via radiography orfluoroscopy while inserted in said sow's reproductive tract.D6. The method of any of D to D5, wherein the subpopulation comprises1×10⁹ or less sperm cells.D7. The method of D2 or D6, wherein administering the subpopulation to areproductive tract of the one or more female swine using a needleinserted through a membrane of the one or more female swine comprisesinjecting the subpopulation into one or more oviducts of the one or morefemale swine.D8. The method of D7, further comprising the step of visualizing saidneedle being inserted into said one or more oviducts via a laparoscopeor video camera.D9. The method of any of D to D8, wherein the subpopulation comprises1×10⁶ or less sperm cells.D10. The method of any of D to D9 further comprising the step ofsynchronizing estrus or inducing timed ovulation in the one or morefemale swine by administering one or more hormone or hormone analogs tothe one or more female swine.D11. The method of D10, wherein the one or more hormone or hormoneanalogs comprises PG600, OvuGel, eCG, progestin, hCG, altrenogest orregumate.D12. The method of D10 or D11, wherein the one or more hormone orhormone analog is administered by a programmable device placed in thereproductive tract of the one or more female swine.D13. The method of any of D to D12, further comprising the step ofdetecting ovulation in the one or more female swine by examining one ormore follicles of the one or more female swine.D14. The method of D13, wherein the one or more follicles are examinedusing ultrasound.E. A method of increasing genetic merit of swine comprising creating amating plan for a line of swine to increase the genetic merit in theline relative to a control by establishing a plurality of matingsubtypes for the line and determining a percentage of progeny that aremale for each of the mating subtypes, or a percentage of progeny thatare female for each of the mating subtypes, that would result, relativeto the control, in an increase in genetic merit in the line.E1. The method of E, wherein the percentage of progeny that are male, orthe percentage of progeny that are female, determined to increasegenetic merit, does not increase inbreeding in the line relative to thecontrol.E2. The method of E or E1, wherein the line comprises a sire line or damline.E3. The method of any of E to E2, wherein in the control, approximately50% of progeny are male.E4. The method of any of E to E3, wherein in the control, all femaleswine to be mated are inseminated with unsorted semen samples.E5. The method of any of E to E4, wherein a category of male swine inone or more of the mating subtypes is defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or age.E6. The method of any of E to E5, wherein a category of female swine inone or more of the mating subtypes is defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or parity.E7. The method of any of E to E6, wherein at least 80% of sperm cells inthe first subpopulation bear X chromosomes or wherein at least 80% ofsperm cells in the first subpopulation bear Y chromosomes.E8. The method of any of E to E7, wherein the line comprises a sire lineand the percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 10 to 35%.E9. The method of E8, wherein the percentage of progeny that are malefor the line is between approximately 15 to 30%.E10. The method of any of E to E7, wherein the line comprises a dam lineand the percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 5 to 30%.E11. The method of E10, wherein the percentage of progeny that are malefor the line is between approximately 10 to 25%.E12. The method of any of E to E7, wherein the percentage of progenythat are male for each of the mating subtypes, or the percentage ofprogeny that are female for each of the mating subtypes is betweenapproximately 0 to 10% or between approximately 90 to 100% and theproduced progeny are members of a daughter nucleus or a multiplier.E13. The method of any of E to E12, wherein each of the mating subtypesin the plurality of mating subtypes comprises only one male swine oronly one female swine from the line.E14. The method of any of E to E13, wherein each of the mating subtypesin the plurality of mating subtypes comprises only one male swine andonly one female swine from the line.E15. The method of any of E to E14, wherein the determined percentagesare determined using a stochastic or a deterministic method.E16. The method of any of E to E15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of one or more dam line traits.E17. The method of any of E to E15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of one or more sire line traits.E18. The method of any of E or E15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of a selection index.E19. The method of any of E or E15, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of EBV.E20. The method of E18, wherein the selection index is a function ofdata derived from a group comprising the male or the female.E21. The method of E16, wherein the traits comprise fertility, littersize and milk production.E22. The method of E17, wherein the traits comprise feed efficiency,average daily gain and carcass lean.E23. The method of any of E to E22, wherein the line belongs to agenetic nucleus, a daughter nucleus or a multiplier.E24. The method of any of E to E22, wherein the line belongs to agenetic nucleus.E25. The method of any of E to E24, wherein the step of establishing aplurality of mating subtypes for a line is performed as part of abreeding program.E26. The method of any of E to E24, wherein the step of establishing aplurality of mating subtypes for a line is performed as part of creatinga mating plan for the line.F. A method of increasing genetic merit of swine comprising the stepsof:establishing a plurality of mating subtypes for a line;determining a percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or a percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, that would result, relative to a control, in anincrease in genetic merit in the line;sorting a sperm cell sample from a male swine in one of the matingsubtypes into one or more subpopulations of sperm cells, wherein atleast 60% of sperm cells in a subpopulation of sperm cells bear Xchromosomes or Y chromosomes; andfertilizing one or more eggs from one or more female swine in the one ofthe mating subtypes with the subpopulation of sperm cells to achieve thepercentage of progeny that are male, or the percentage of progeny thatare female, determined to increase genetic merit relative to thecontrol.F1. The method of F, wherein the step of fertilizing is done in vivo.F2. The method of F, wherein the step of fertilizing is done in vitro.F3. The method of any of F to F2, wherein the percentage of progeny thatare male, or the percentage of progeny that are female, determined toincrease genetic merit, does not increase inbreeding in the linerelative to the control.F4. The method of any of F to F3, wherein the line comprises a sire lineor dam line.F5. The method of any of F to F4, wherein in the control, approximately50% of progeny are male.F6. The method of any of F to F5, wherein in the control, all femaleswine to be mated are inseminated with unsorted semen samples.F7. The method of any of F to F6, wherein a category of male swine inone or more of the mating subtypes is defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or age.F8. The method of any of F to F7, wherein a category of female swine inone or more of the mating subtypes is defined by one or morecharacteristics, including genetic merit or parity.F9. The method of any of F to F8, wherein the percentage of sperm cellsin the subpopulation of sperm cells that bear X chromosomes or Ychromosomes is selected from the group consisting of at least 65%, atleast 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, atleast 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 99% and atleast 100%.F10. The method of any of F to F9, wherein the line comprises a sireline and the percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 10 to 35%.F11. The method of F10, wherein the percentage of progeny that are malefor the line is between approximately 15 to 30%.F12. The method of any of F to F9, wherein the line comprises a dam lineand the percentage of progeny that are male for each of the matingsubtypes, or the percentage of progeny that are female for each of themating subtypes, determined to increase genetic merit of the linerelative to a control, results in a percentage of progeny that are malefor the line that is between approximately 5 to 30%.F13. The method of F12, wherein the percentage of progeny that are malefor the line is between approximately 10 to 25%.F14. The method of any of F to F9, wherein the percentage of progenythat are male for each of the mating subtypes, or the percentage ofprogeny that are female for each of the mating subtypes is betweenapproximately 0 to 10% or between approximately 90 to 100% and theproduced progeny are members of a daughter nucleus or a multiplier.F15. The method of any of F to F14, wherein each of the mating subtypesin the plurality of mating subtypes comprises only one male swine oronly one female swine from the line.F16. The method of any of F to F15, wherein each of the mating subtypesin the plurality of mating subtypes comprises only one male swine andonly one female swine from the line.F17. The method of any of F to F16, wherein the determined percentagesare determined using a stochastic or a deterministic method.F18. The method of any of F to F17, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of one or more dam line traits.F19. The method of any of F to F17, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of one or more sire line traits.F20. The method of any of F to F17, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of a selection index.F21. The method of any of F to F17, wherein genetic merit of a male or afemale is a function of EBV.F22. The method of F20, wherein the selection index is a function ofdata derived from a group comprising the male or the female.F23. The method of F18, wherein the traits comprise fertility, littersize and milk production.F24. The method of F19, wherein the traits comprise feed efficiency,average daily gain and carcass lean.F25. The method of any of F to F24, comprising the additional step ofselecting parents based on phenotypic measurement.F26. The method of any of F to F24, comprising the additional step ofselecting parents for the line based on genotype.F27. The method of any of F to F24, comprising the additional step ofselecting parents using mutation assisted selection.F28. The method of any of F to F27, wherein the male swine or the one ormore female swine are members of a genetic nucleus, a daughter nucleusor a multiplier.F29. The method of any of F to F27, wherein the male swine or the one ormore female swine are members of a genetic nucleus.F30. The method of any of F to F29, wherein the step of establishing aplurality of mating subtypes for a line is performed as part of abreeding program.F31. The method of any of F to F29, wherein the step of establishing aplurality of mating subtypes for a line is performed as part of creatinga mating plan for the line.G. A method of increasing the genetic progress of a line or breed ofswine comprising the steps of:collecting a semen sample from a boar from said line or breed;sorting said semen sample into at least two subpopulations of spermcells, wherein at least 80% of a first subpopulation bears X-chromosomesor Y-chromosomes;inseminating a sow from said line or breed with sperm cells from saidfirst subpopulation;producing offspring from said sow; andcalculating a selection index for one or more of said offspring;selecting one or more of said offspring having a higher selection indexcompared to the average selection index for said line or breed to breedwith a swine from said line or breed so as to increase the geneticprogress of said line or breed.G1. The method of G wherein said line or breed is a gilt line and saidfirst subpopulation bears X-chromosomes.G2. The method of G wherein said line or breed is a boar line and saidfirst subpopulation bears Y-chromosomes.G3. The method of G, wherein the selection index for one or more of saidoffspring is calculated based on data derived from a group comprisingsaid offspring.G4. The method of G, wherein said selection index for one or more ofsaid offspring comprises measuring the traits of fertility, litter sizeand milk production.G5. The method of G, wherein said selection index for one or more ofsaid offspring comprises measuring the traits of feed efficiency,average daily gain and carcass lean.G6. The method of G, wherein the step of inseminating a sow from saidline or breed with sperm cells from said first subpopulation comprisesadministering said sperm cells to said sow's reproductive tract using adeep intrauterine catheter or a needle inserted through a membrane ofsaid sow.G7. The method of G6, wherein administering said sperm cells to saidsow's reproductive tract using a deep intrauterine catheter comprisesplacing said sperm cells in one or more uterine horns.G8. The method of G7, wherein said deep intrauterine catheter comprisesa video camera or scope.G9. The method of G7, further comprising the step of visualizing thedeep intrauterine catheter via radiography or fluoroscopy while insertedin said sow's reproductive tract.G10. The method of G7, wherein the total number of sperm cellsadministered is 1×10⁹ or less sperm cells.G11. The method of G6, wherein administering said sperm cells to saidsow's reproductive tract using a needle inserted through a membrane ofsaid sow comprises injecting said sperm cells into one or more oviductsof said sow's uterus.G12. The method of G11, further comprising the step of visualizing saidneedle being inserted into said one or more oviducts via a laparoscopeor video camera.G13. The method of G11, wherein the total number of sperm cellsadministered is 1×10⁶ or less sperm cells.G14. The method of any one of G to G13, further comprising the step ofsynchronizing estrus or inducing timed ovulation in said sow byadministering one or more hormone or hormone analogs to said sow.G15. The method of G14, wherein said one or more hormone or hormoneanalogs comprises PG600, OvuGel, eCG, progestin, or hCG.G16. The method of G14, wherein said one or more hormone or hormoneanalog is administered by a programmable device placed in thereproductive tract of said sow.G17. The method of G14, further comprising the step of detectingovulation in said sow by examining said females follicles.G18. The method of G17, wherein said follicles are examined usingultrasound.G19. The method of any one of G to G13 wherein said sow is a member of agenetic nucleus or multiplier herd.G20. The method of any one of G to G13 wherein said boar is a member ofa genetic nucleus or multiplier herd.H. A method of increasing the genetic progress of a line or breed ofswine comprising the steps of:collecting a semen sample from a boar from said line or breed;sorting said semen sample into at least two subpopulations of spermcells, wherein at least 80% of a first subpopulation bears X chromosomesor Y chromosomes;inseminating a sow from said line or breed with sperm cells from saidfirst subpopulation;producing offspring from said sow;obtaining a value for a trait in one or more of said offspring; andselecting one or more of said offspring having a value for said traitthat is greater than or less than the average value for said trait insaid line or breed to breed with a swine from said line or breed so asto increase the genetic progress of said line or breed.H1. The method of H wherein said line or breed is a gilt line and saidfirst subpopulation bears X-chromosomes.H2. The method of H wherein said line or breed is a boar line and saidfirst subpopulation bears Y-chromosomes.I. A method of increasing the number of offspring of geneticallysuperior boars in a swine herd or on a swine farm comprising:establishing a subpopulation of one or more genetically superior boarsfrom a population of boars in a herd or on a farm;obtaining sperm cell samples from the one or more genetically superiorboars;preparing a plurality of sperm cell doses from each of the sperm cellsamples;administering one or more hormone or hormone analogs to a plurality ofsows in said herd or on said farm in order to induce timed ovulation foreach sow; andinseminating the sows with one or more sperm cell doses using a deepintrauterine catheter or a laparoscopic procedure, wherein the one ormore sperm cell doses administered to each sow together comprise a totalof less than 1×10⁹ sperm cells; thereby increasing the number ofoffspring of genetically superior boars in a herd or on a farm.J. A method of reducing the number of boars necessary for breeding in aswine herd or on a swine farm comprising:establishing a subpopulation of one or more genetically superior boarsfrom a population of boars in a herd or on a farm;obtaining sperm cell samples from the one or more genetically superiorboars;preparing a plurality of sperm cell doses from each of the sperm cellsamples;administering one or more hormone or hormone analogs to a plurality ofsows in said herd or on said farm in order to induce timed ovulation foreach sow; andinseminating the sows with one or more sperm cell doses using a deepintrauterine catheter or a laparoscopic procedure, wherein the one ormore sperm cell doses administered to each sow together comprise a totalof less than 1×10⁹ sperm cells;thereby reducing the number of boars necessary for breeding in the herdor on the farm.J1. The method of claim I or J wherein genetically superior boarscomprise boars with a higher selection index relative to other boarswithin the herd or on the farm.K. A method for increasing the profitability of a swine herd or farmcomprising:determining whether a male pig or a female pig results in a higher netincome per pig based on market conditions to which the herd or farm issubject;collecting a semen sample from a boar;sorting said semen sample into at least two subpopulations of spermcells, wherein at least 80% of a first subpopulation bears X-chromosomesif the female pig results in a higher net income per pig orY-chromosomes if the male pig results in a higher net income per pig;inseminating a sow with sperm cells from said first subpopulation; andproducing offspring from said sow.K1. The method of K, wherein the male pig is a barrow.K2. The method of K, wherein the female pig is a gilt.K3. The method of K, wherein the step of determining whether a male pigor a female pig results in a higher net income per pig under marketconditions to which the herd or farm is subject comprises comparing atrait between male and female pigs wherein the trait is selected fromany one of the following: feed conversion, body weight, average dailygain, carcass lean, loin depth, back fat depth, belly fat depth, fatfree lean index, lean gain per day, feed cost per pig and jowl fatiodine value.

As can be easily understood from the foregoing, the basic concepts ofthe present invention may be embodied in a variety of ways. Theinvention involves numerous and varied embodiments using sex sortedsperm cells to increase the genetic progress of a line, including, butnot limited to, the best mode of the invention.

As such, the particular embodiments or elements of the inventiondisclosed by the description or shown in the figures or tablesaccompanying this application are not intended to be limiting, butrather exemplary of the numerous and varied embodiments genericallyencompassed by the invention or equivalents encompassed with respect toany particular element thereof. In addition, the specific description ofa single embodiment or element of the invention may not explicitlydescribe all embodiments or elements possible; many alternatives areimplicitly disclosed by the description and figures.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of increasing genetic merit of swinecomprising the steps of: providing a population of swine; establishing asubpopulation of males and females from the population of swineavailable for breeding and parenting progeny; establishing femalesubgroups in the subpopulation, or male subgroups in the subpopulation,wherein the female subgroups are established based on genetic merit orparity and the male subgroups are established based on genetic merit orage, and each female subgroup comprises one or more females and eachmale subgroup comprises one or more males; establishing a matingsubtype, wherein the mating subtype comprises i) a female subgroup andone or more males from the subpopulation or ii) a male subgroup and oneor more females from the subpopulation; determining a percentage of maleprogeny for the mating subtype, or a percentage of female progeny forthe mating subtype, that would result in an increase in genetic merit inthe next generation relative to a control, wherein in the control,approximately 50% of progeny are male; and inseminating one or morefemales in the mating subtype with a sex sorted sperm cell sample from amale in the mating subtype to achieve the percentage of progeny that aremale, or the percentage of progeny that are female, determined toincrease genetic merit relative to the control.
 2. The method of claim1, wherein the percentage of male progeny, or the percentage of femaleprogeny, determined to increase genetic merit in the next generation,does not increase inbreeding relative to the control.
 3. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the subpopulation of male and female swine are membersof a genetic nucleus, a daughter nucleus or a multiplier.
 4. The methodof claim 1, wherein subpopulation of male and female swine are membersof a genetic nucleus.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein thesubpopulation of male and female swine are members of a sire line or damline.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein in the control, all female swineto be mated are inseminated with unsorted semen samples.
 7. The methodof claim 5, further comprising the step of producing progeny of thesubpopulation wherein approximately 10 to 35% of the progeny are male.8. The method of claim 7, wherein approximately 15 to 30% of the progenyare male.
 9. The method of claim 5, further comprising the step ofproducing progeny of the subpopulation wherein approximately 5 to 30% ofthe progeny are male.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein approximately10 to 25% of the progeny are male.
 11. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising the step of producing progeny of the subpopulation whereinapproximately 0 to 10% or approximately 90 to 100% of the progeny aremale or female and are members of a daughter nucleus or a multiplier.12. The method of claim 1, wherein the percentages are determined usinga stochastic or a deterministic method.